In the evolution of the Russian table, there is such a historically important moment as the transition in the XV-XVII centuries from "pitny" honey to vodka. Why this happened, what made the Russians replace sweet honey with bitter vodka, how this story influenced the change in the entire system of names of table drinks - this will be discussed in the proposed notes. However, we will pre-empt the consideration of this problem by presenting several important points.
Until the middle of the 20th century, when only natural raw materials were used for the production of beverages, the system of names of beverages was crucially dependent on the raw materials from which the drinks were made.
Raw materials for the production of beverages are associated with certain territories - climatic zones of growth and production of initial components, so many peoples have a system of names of drinks necessarily has a national flavor. Any ethnic type is more adapted to life in the area where it was formed and developed: the way of life, material culture, local food and drinks-everything plays a role. The people of a particular area are accustomed to certain types of drinks, and in some cases certain types of drinks are generally contraindicated. Thus, the peoples of the Far North have never had any grapes, honey, or grain as part of their national food - those substances from which alcoholic beverages are made. This is probably why the northern peoples are not immune to alcohol.
Changes in the technology of processing primary raw materials have a decisive impact on the map of national beverages.
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These three components: raw materials-climate zone-technology-determine the three main semantic components in the nomenclature of beverage names. The structure of root nests and the system of compound names depend on these features. These three components are also the oldest in the general set of semantic indicators that organize the vocabulary of drinking.
In the IX-XIV centuries in Russia, three types of drinks differed depending on the source material and manufacturing technology. They were distinguished by one common property: until the XV century, the Slavs, like the Balts and Germans, did not cook or drink strong drinks.
First of all, in the tradition there was grape red wine - a ritual drink. This wine spread with the adoption of Christianity, was a symbol of Christ's sacrifice. Following the Greeks, Russians drank grape wine only in half with water, not stronger. The names of wine of this period, except for the words wine, drink, are mostly Greek borrowings, since it was a foreign imported wine. That is why the nomenclature of wines in the Old Russian language is completely undeveloped. Later, during the Muscovite Rus of the XIV-XVII centuries, the terminology of wines became somewhat more complicated due to the development of trade contacts with the West: Fryazhsk wines appeared - these are French, Italian and Crimean; Greek wines - Malvasia, Bastre; French - Romanea, mushkatel; Rennes - German wine from Moselle vineyards.
The second type is locally produced beverages produced as a result of natural fermentation of honey. Honey is an ancient name, mentioned already in the Ostromir gospel (XI century). Pitny honey is an intoxicating drink made from a mixture of wild bee honey and berry juices and aged from 10 to 35 years. Until the 17th century, honey was the main national drink of Russia. But even in the XVII-XVIII centuries, it was not uncommon on the Russian table.
Judging by the regular substitutions of honey-wine, noted by A. Kh. Vostokov in the texts of the XI century, honey has long been valued as an intoxicating drink: "In honey (variant: in wine) don't be brave, you've ruined a lot of honey"; " Don't get drunk on honey "(option: wine).
Folklore and artistic texts recorded the main qualities of drinking honey-sweetness and strength: "still drinking cherries and sweet meads and having fun" (Kazanskaya istoriya, Moscow, 1954); "Tsar Soloman asked to drink honey from Pyanovo, so that death would not be terrible" (Monuments of ancient Russian literature. St. Petersburg, 1860, Issue 3).
In business texts, attention is focused on the technology of making honey (medka rozsytit-medy sytit - medy posycheny, honey delivered), and often in comparison with the methods of making other popular strong drinks for that time: "pivtsa svariti or medka rozsytiti"; "wine is burned and beer is brewed and honey is delivered".
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The technology of honey preparation changed (first-honey-making, then-honey-making ), as honey reserves were reduced. What was the difference between cooked honey and boiled honey? In both cases, honey was first dissociated (diluted with water): the rate of dissection for honey composition is 1: 4, 1: 6. During honey composition, dissected honey was evaporated: from sixteen kilograms of bee honey, four kilograms of sour honey were obtained. The evaporated sediment was fermented, then sour honey was put in a cauldron with berries, this infusion was fermented, it was stewed in the oven, poured into barrels and put in the cellar for aging.
Mead-making developed later than medostav, in the XIII-XIV centuries, when the shortage of honey became obvious. When dissociating, the water rate was increased: 1: 7, molasses was added to honey, the composition was scalded with boiling water (sugar honey), yeast was added and they tried to make the fermentation product go into the honey itself-hence the" stunning " strength of honey with its insignificant (by today's standards) strength - up to sixteen degrees. According to tradition, the new technology was also called honey staviti, here is its detailed description in Domostroy according to the list of the XVII century: "With potions honey staviti with all sorts: with muskat and with cinnamon and with cloves and with ginger and with other all sorts of potions, put Kislov's honey, which neither wake up,in small barrels and feed molasses, yes, those potions are worn out finely and put in tailor bags, yes, those bags with those potions put in those small barrels, and in honey hang on threads in funnels, and close the funnels tightly so that the spirit does not come out of the barrels" (Readings in the History and Antiquities of Russia, Moscow, 1881. Kn. 2).
The change in technology and the variety of local additives to the main product significantly influenced the development of the nomenclature of names: we took into account about seventy individual tokens and compound names. In the Russian nomenclature of honey names, indications of nine characteristics of the drink are usually used: 1 - method of preparation and additional processing (boiled honey); 2 - designation of additives (raspberry honey); 3 - duration of aging and at the same time gradation by grade (light honey-medium honey-strong honey); 4-assessment of overall quality (good honey); 5-purpose (table honey); 6 - color (white honey, red honey); 7-place of manufacture (German honey); 8 - time of manufacture (spring honey); 9-dishes or storage place (bucket honey, barn honey).
There were a great many varieties of honey. Thus, a foreign ambassador in 1602 was asked to " try 23 or 24 varieties of honey, which he likes best." The method of preparation and additional processing were reflected in the following series of names: stavlyany, boiled-obyarny-obarny, sycheny, tsezheny: "medu tsezhena" (1284); "honey obarny and treacle and tsezhona" (1583); "honey stavlyany 20 buckets of good, 150 buckets of roskhodogo" (1676)."you don't have enough sychenago honey" (Ryazan helmsman 1284 Collection of the Department of Russian Language and Literature
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RAS. 1899. Vol. 65; Collection of the Russian Historical Society. St. Petersburg, 1883, vol. 38; Russian Historical Library, St. Petersburg, 1907, vol. 21; Poln. sobr. soch. russkikh letopisii, L., 1950, vol. 37).
The second most important thing is the designation of additives (berries, fruits, spices) on which honey was infused. By the way, this group also includes the entire range of syntactic models for compound names: adjective + noun; nominative case of a noun + c + creative case of a noun, for example, berry honey: "2 ladles of treacle honey with gvostsy 2 ladles of honey with muskat, 2 ladles of honey with cardamom" (Domostroy; Collection of the Department of Russian Language and El. RAS. Vol. 1. N 3; Zabelin I. Domashnyj vzglyad russkikh tsarey. Moscow, 1915. Ch. 2).
Berry honeys predominated in berry Russia: raspberry, cherry, blueberry, currant, blackcurrant, bone, mozzhevelovy, cherry, thorn - "I served him cherry and raspberry honey in kovypekh" (1517); "two mugs of cherry honey" (1599); " cherry, raspberry, currant honey for 2 kruzhki, kostenichnogo, cheremkhovogo, mozzhevelovogo po kruzhke " (1664; Monuments of diplomatic relations with the Roman Empire. SPb., 1851; Acts of history. SPb., 1841; Palace ranks. SPb., 1852). Apple honey was popular among fruit honeys; other fruits did not ripen in harsh Russia.
Probably, the third place in the honey hierarchy will be taken by the meads named taking into account the duration of aging, which also affects the gradation in grade: "two barrels of old honey"; "And from the raw good to put the ordered three meads: lehkovo, serednevo and krepkovo for 5 buckets" (1673).
The assessment of the overall quality of the drink was expressed in the words good, simple, common: "20 buckets of good honey, 150 buckets of common honey" (1676); "2 buckets of simple honey" (1684; Iosaphovskaya chronicle. Moscow, 1957; Rus. ist. b-ka. Vol. 1; Poln. sobr. Laws of the Russian Empire, St. Petersburg, 1830, vol. 11).
The purpose of honey was also taken into account in its name, it depended on the taste and duration of aging: knyazhoy, boyar, prikaznaya, privatovoy, bratsky, canteen. For example, boyar honey was prepared from pure honey, molasses was not added: "10 buckets of knyazhogo honey, 15 buckets of boyarsky honey "(ca. 1560); (Rus. ist. b-ka. Vol. 10; State Archive of the Vologda region).
The next motivational attribute is color: white, light-red. Red honey was more valuable than white honey, it was distinguished by a variety of additives and a more advanced manufacturing technology. White-light honey was contrasted with sour honey, i.e. all berry and fruit honey, but it could be saturated with spices: "Give white honey and beer, don't give red honey "(1584); " Ordered
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g(o) s(u) d (a)r served to the ambassador in kovshekh in golden honey of cherry and raspberry and white "(1583); " white honey: treacle with gvoztsy, ladle with muskat, with cardamom "(1667; Pam. dipl. snosh. Mosk. state; Zabelin. Edict. op.).
The dining custom of old Russia consisted in the fact that guests were exposed (sent) several varieties of honey at once: "Sent by a nobleman half a bucket of cherry honey, half a bucket of raspberry honey, half a bucket of boyar honey, half a bucket of obarny honey, 5 buckets of patochnovo honey, 10 buckets of prince's honey" (1594). In the first serving, the great sovereign was served three types of " red honey: cherry, raspberry, currant; 2 serving: raspberry boyar; 3 serve: juniper, cherry " (1667; Zabelin. Edict. op.). In ancient times, honey was drunk from goblets and horns, and in the times of Moscow Russia-from mugs, staves, ladles (white honey - from white ladles, red - from colored ones) and glasses: "To His Holiness the Patriarch they brought red honey in elegant ladles with pearls and stones, and white honey in white ladles" (1667 G.; Notes - Ancient Russian Viviophics. St. Petersburg, 1773. Part II. July).
Let's move on to the third type of beverages obtained as a result of artificial fermentation of grain after cooking and adding herbs. First of all, it is kvass and beer. If honey was a solemn and festive drink, it was drunk in isolation from the meal, then ordinary table drinks were kvass and beer.
Initially, beer was prepared once a year for the New Year, and the year began on the first of March. From the first mash (this is a mixture of malt, hops and yeast), the wort was thick, and the beer was the best. This beer was called March beer. Subsequent distilling of the wort was thinner and lighter-the beer was worse. The practice of many years of beer preparation has shown the need to maintain a strict, unchanging technology: the river called "beer" flows in very narrow technological banks, going beyond which instantly turns beer into "nepivo". For this reason, the nomenclature of beer names was less developed than the system of honey names: there are exactly half as many of them.
Experiments with fermentation of dough led to the discovery of distillery in the middle of the XV century: rye wine and vodka were invented.
The word vodka (from the "innocent" word water) in the Old Russian language had several meanings, which is explained by the qualities of this liquid, the main one of which is a high alcohol content (alcohol content). This made it possible to use vodka as a technical liquid, for example, in jewelry: "The sovereign's salary to the alchemist and vodochnik Wilim Smith for vodka, that he passed vodka to the golden cause" (1626; Readings in the Society of History and Antiquities of Russia. Moscow, 1882. Book 3).
They were easily dissolved (infused)in vodka odorous substances, so vodka was called "perfume, hygiene liquids": "With aroma-
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perfume 4 suleiki votki gulyafnye, 4 suleiki votki fragrant " (1661; Armenian-Russian relations in the XVII century). Yerevan, 1953. Vol. 1). Gulyafnaya - golyafnaya (or sveroborinnaya-svoroborinnaya) vodka was infused with rosehip flowers.
Aromatic vodkas were infused with natural raw materials that have medicinal properties, so they could also serve as a"medicine". In this capacity, vodka-vodkas were early and widely known in Russia: "Tell me, sire, to give me some vodkas from your sovereign's optek for my headache: svoroborinnaya, bukvishnaya, krolova, mint, and finikoleva" (1630); " Priest Grigory gave him the protopop from his hands from the sklyanitsa who knows what compound drink, and he called that drink vodka" (1684; Acts of History Vol. III; Russian History. b-ka. Vol. 14).
Quite early, Russians began to use vodka as an "intoxicating drink": "When they are having fun, they drink mainly vodka and honey drink" (Russia, n. XVII century. Notes of Captain Margeret, Moscow, 1982). Vodkas were flavored, they tried to give some color, such technologies repeated the previously known practice of preparing pita honey: "For the namesake of her sovereign, vodkas of cinnamon, anise, order, clove, cardamom, kishnetsova according to the quarter sklyanitsa" (1700; Zabelin. Edict. op.). Hence the expression green-wine-this is a potion wine, that is ," with a potion-hops, St. John's wort and other herbs."
Popular were aniseed, wormwood - wormwood vodkas: "They were ordered to give an order in Optekarskaya about the sovereign in sweet anise vodka six pounds of anise" (1631); " wormwood vodka "(1699; Acts of history. Vol. 3.; Search cases about F. Shaklovite. St. Petersburg., 1885. T. P.). For the sovereign's table Sytny prikaz, who was in charge of dishes and drinks, ordered vodka in the Aptekarsky prikaz: "Veleti isideti in the Optekarsky prikaz on the sovereign's household on Sytny palace from four buckets from Romanea cinnamon vodka" (1628; Zabelin. Edict. op.). Both medicinal and hoppy vodka were originally made from grape wines by distillation-this is written: "To the palace distiller Osip Fyodorov for the work that he was in prison... "(1699; Expense book of the Patriarch's order to dishes ... St. Petersburg, 1890).
There was also imported vodka: German, "fryanchyuzhskaya", Kiev: "You have good German vodkas. Perhaps, Kostyantin Rodionovich, please send us a barrel of vodka " (1663; St. Petersburg Department. In-ta history).
The strength of wine is growing, hot wine has appeared - "having the ability to burn" (cf. the Ukrainian gorilka and German Brandtwein appeared simultaneously ) . In the Novgorod Chronicle for 1548, the bitter wine "vodka with wormwood and tree buds infusion"is first mentioned. Now the expression is reinterpreted as " a drink that brings bitter life, drunk with grief."
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To enhance the strength of the drink was heated and distilled twice, three times. Hence the terms: simple wine or polugar (23 degrees), double wine (37-45), triple (70, this is the classic basis for diluting water to the state of vodka, but at first from triple wine due to sweetening and additives made balsams, Russian liqueurs and casseroles); quaternary wine (80 degrees, in the XVIII century from it they made tinctures - erofeichi or sweetened tafii-ratafii).
Since the middle of the 17th century, vodka has become a Russian national drink. Formed the custom of treats-salaries of vodka, dishes of vodka: "You would like my friend to eat vodka from it for health" (XVII century; gramotka); " The boyars and okolnichikh and dumny and neighboring people were rewarded with cups of fryasky drinks, and stewards and generals and lawyers marching and colonels streletsky and clerks from orders and guests with vodka"(1691; Petrovsky sbornik, St. Petersburg, 1872).
Because of the semantic load of the word vodka, which is often used in doctor's recipes, a strong drink based on distilling grape wines is called hot wine or double wine (Kurz B. G. Kielburger's essay on Russian trade in the reign of Alexey Mikhailovich. Kiev, 1915). Most often, a strong drink was traditionally called wine, but a clarifying definition was added: "Wines build roslichnyya spiced and elegant, triple and quadruple, build for glory and honor, and not for themselves" (Cosmography of K. XVII century-Zap. Mosk. an archaeologist. in-ta. 1911. Vol. XI).
For some time, mainly in the Northern Russian acts, a strong bread drink was called araka: "At the smechat bypass, since there are two boilers of araki of the first and other" (Domostroy); "That wine that head Prokopei Samoilov plundered thousands of goods and poured out bragi and arak to his cookery and grain reserves for them" (1632; Rus. ist. b-ka. Vol. 25). Araka was originally known to Russians as a Turkish or Yakut drink made from grain.
However, due to its greater strength compared to ordinary wine, double wine is increasingly identified with vodka. So, at the Moscow customs office in 1684, when questioned, a merchant declares for transportation "three barrels of Kiev vodka with a bucket of nine", and during the investigation he was found to have "two barrels of double wine with a measure of three buckets" (Acts of History Vol. XI). Judging by the indications of dictionaries, even in the XVIII century, the names of a strong bread drink freely replaced each other: "Hot wine, vodka, gorelka"; "Double wine-votka".
The official recognition of the term vodka took place on June 8, 1751, when Tsarina Elizabeth Petrovna issued a decree "Who is allowed to have cubes for doubling vodkas".
In the XVIII century, they stopped dissecting the drink, i.e. adding a solution of bee honey, and began to deal more with flavoring due to the addition of spices and herbs. We started trying different options
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mixing of drinks: there was a wine with a swing (2/3 simple wine and 1/3 double), but it was made without purification, so it was soon transferred to the category of technical mixtures. But on the basis of diluting triple wine with water up to forty degrees at the suggestion of D. I. Mendeleev in 1894, Russia patented the "Moscow special", which became famous all over the world.
Let's add a story about gorilka to the history of vodka. The word gorilka in the meaning of "strong drink, vodka" got into Russian from Ukrainian. Ukrainian gorilka was identified with burnt wine: "decree on burnt wine, that is, about the burner". The first batches of gorilka were imported, so the first examples of using the word emphasized the foreign character of the drink and the love of foreigners for it: "Nemchin Ivan von Lubtsov taught us to Say:" If you have a burner, we will drink about Orolevskaya's mother health "" (1631; Zap. Mosk. an archaeologist. in-ta, vol. XIV). Since the middle of the 17th century, gorelka (not gorilka ) has become a well-known drink in Russia, and its strength is also growing. So, in 1664, in connection with the sending of stale fish to the patriarch, the guilty received such a sarcastic letter from his Holiness: "If you really eat such fish yourself and stink yourself, you will not wash away the stench in your baths for a week and you will not soon drink it with a yakovitoyu burner" (Rus.historich. b-ka. T. V).
Simultaneously with the evolution of intoxicating drinks, ideas about drinking utensils also developed: the consumption rate decreased, but the strength of the drink increased. For the ancient Rusichs and fourteen degrees - strong, for the Russian master and yerofeyev at seventy degrees-sweet, and proletarian vodka had a forty-degree standard. So, here are the measures of liquids for hops: Moscow bucket-12 liters, a quarter-a quarter of a bucket, 3 liters; stop-10 cups, one and a half liters; vodka bottle-0.61 liters (modern half-liter appeared in the late 20s of the XX century); bucket-3 cups, half a liter; cup - 143.5 grams (an ingenious discovery of the ancient Rus, since it was later proved that the medical norm for a single consumption of vodka is 150 grams, this is the famous "People's Commissar's hundred and fifty", well known to the participants of the Great Patriotic War).
Let's pay attention to the prevalence of the word cup: bring a cup, drink a cup. In general, the phraseology of the Russian feast was associated not so much with the names of drinks as with the names of drinking utensils: A healthful cup; Drink a cup; They brought a ladle; Thank the jug that opened the kruchina; One glass for health, another for fun, the third for nonsense; The soul lit up to a wine ladle. And here's how they seduce a young man in "Woe-Woe": "Drink a cup of green wine, drink a cup of honey sladkovo". Zdravitsa - "zazdravny toast" from the Russian expression zazdravnaya or zdorovnaya chalice. Obs-
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tea to say toast appeared a very long time ago, in the Izbornik of Svyatoslav in 1076 we read: "Bringing the cup to your lips, remember the one who called for joy." Since ancient times, there were rules of behavior at the table. Some of them are written directly on the bucket of the middle of the XVII century, stored in the Historical Museum in Moscow: "Man, be humble in glory, wise in sorrow, not invited to a feast - do not go, if you go - do not sit in a high place, but you will not be disgraced behind everyone, do not drink every bucket to the bottom don't go to any of your wives in kut, don't talk to them, and don't be dishonest."
The names of drinks in table phraseology began to prevail in modern times, with the development of cravings for alcohol in society, which V. I. Dahl conscientiously recorded: "Tea, coffee - not in the morning; there would be vodka in the morning" (note that the custom of European dining does not involve the use of strong drinks either in the morning or even at lunch, and only after fifteen o'clock); Where there is wine, then there is a holiday, Vodka, aunt (Dahl V. I. Proverbs of the Russian people, Moscow, 2000).
The meal procedure began with an appetizer. The appetizer was also sometimes called breakfast, because it also preceded dinner - the main meal. Appetizer - a light meal (caviar, smoked fish, cheese, salted meat, crackers, cookies and drinks), the purpose of the snack is not to satisfy hunger, but to excite the appetite. The snack table is a Russian invention, in the 60s of the XIX century it became fashionable in France.
The Russian snack table was also formed under the influence of the all-powerful vodka from the XVIII century as a snack for strong drinks. It consists of three groups of snacks: a-meat (9 types) - salted pork fat, ham (Tambov ham), beef jelly, cold pig-pork jelly, cold pork head, pork tongue, or boiled beef, cold aspic veal, boiled corned beef; mustard and horseradish are required for this set, completely unpopular in the times of drinking honey; b - fish (24 species) - herring with sunflower oil and onions, black payus caviar (3 - grainy) salmon, red salmon caviar, pink whitefish caviar, cold-smoked sturgeon balyk, etc.; b-vegetable (11 species) - salted cucumbers, sauerkraut, provencal cabbage, etc.
In conclusion, one remark - by way of suggestion and a hint of a possible research perspective.
The nomenclature of drink names is basically androgynous in origin, i.e. it was formed by men: since ancient times, men acted as winemakers, mead makers and distillers; women were allowed to make beer, honey, and even more so vodka only at separate, initial stages of raw material production. The fact is that as the drink was made, it was supposed to be tasted, and a woman is not always shown this. The evolution of bread drink names, for example, mainly reflects three stages of development
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technologies. Thus, the household names of the XV-XVII centuries are strict in a masculine way, accurately reflect the qualities of reality, and are extremely informative: bread wine, boiled wine, perevar, smoked wine, hot wine, tavern, Russian wine, bread wine, bitter wine.
In the XVIII-XIX centuries, euphemisms and jargon expressions appeared, which reflects the society's habituation to strong drinks, the transition from the assessment of drinking strong drinks as an indecent thing to the qualification as a decent occupation. Therefore, along with the "technological" names (moonshine, fumes, sivukha-sivaldai [gray, unpeeled color]), there are also masculine rude-joking ones: royal madeira, French 14 class (a hint that the lowest rank drinks), silvuple, Petrovskaya vodka, fire and water, bread tear, cheap, than I upset you, mallard, a wedge in the head (Dal. Edict. op.). At the same time, a huge number of expressions appear that characterize the state of drunkenness: under turakh; under courage; podshofe; pour for a tie, for a collar, for an ear; kill a fly; overcome a bear; kill a blackbird; wet your lips (snout, muzzle); lubricate your throat, moisten your throat, rinse your teeth; put in a vein; soak mustache in a glass; starve a worm; took a sip over the edge (enough); vandalize the nose; get drunk; cut; stretch; pump; roll up the ear, etc. In the same place). Finally, in the XIX-XX centuries, technical terms predominate: raka, simple wine, semi-gar, foamy wine, two-sample wine, three-sample wine, four-sample wine, double wine, wine with a swing, triple wine.
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