In 1613, the 28-year-old Jan Pieterszoon Kun was appointed head of the Dutch trading post in Banten, the sultanate of West Java. A capable, energetic, far-sighted man, not shy about the means to achieve his goals, Kuhn, having made a quick career in the United Netherlands East India Company (NOIC), founded in 1602, put forward a plan to create a permanent center of its possessions in the Malay (Indonesian) archipelago. Kun's choice fell on the small principality of Jayakertu, whose lord was a vassal of Banten. In 1618, Kun, who became Governor-General, began construction of a fort in Jayakert. After repulsing the British and local lords, Kun captured Jayakerta and destroyed it to the ground. On the site of the Indonesian city, a powerful fort and settlement began to be created around it, by order of the directors of the NOIC, which received the name Batavia in 1619-in honor of the Gallic Batavian tribe that once lived in the Netherlands. Batavia became the administrative and commercial center of the NOIC's Asian and African possessions. She admired the sailor Woods Rogers, who, in 1710, after an exhausting seven-month voyage from Europe, he wrote that he was "absolutely amazed to see the magnificent city and the Europeans who are so excellently settled in the Indies" [Naap, 1935, blz. 710].

Keywords: Batavia, Dutch East India Company (NOIC), intra-Asian trade, Batavian roadstead, city channels, port administration.

THE PORT CITY AND ITS INHABITANTS

Batavia was constructed according to a plan sent from Amsterdam, where the NOIC board was located, authored by the mathematician and topographer Simon Stevin [Breuning, 1954, blz. 125; Leur and Loos, 1949, blz. 194-198]. The Portuguese and Spanish built their fortresses on the sea coast, if possible on islands or peninsulas that could be defended by relatively small forces. Another principle of the Iberian military engineers was the division of the fortress proper, where only Portuguese or Spaniards lived, and the city and its suburbs, inhabited by Chinese and local residents. The classic examples of such urban planning were Malacca in Portugal (Tyurin, 1980, p. 56-57) and Manila in Spain (Levtonova, 1979, p.47). Kuhn followed the Portuguese in building a Castle (Casteel) on the bay, but Batavia's resemblance to Malacca, Goa, or Manila ended there.

Batavia was created from the very beginning as a city founded not by a feudal state, but by a commercial corporation. Located at the mouth of the Chiliwong River, Batavia was crisscrossed by canals and streets arranged in a geometric pattern. The city was surrounded by a wide and deep moat and solid walls with bastions, where cannons were placed to defend it from the sea and which could be easily deployed in case of unrest in the streets. Bata-

viia resembled Dutch Calvinist cities: canals bordered by trees and neatly built houses, a town hall, two hospitals, an epidemic hospital, a judicial presence, several churches, a prison, and a room for "drunk and walking women" (Blusse, 2009, p.121).

The town hall and main cathedral overlooked the square and parade ground that connected the city to the Castle. Along the river, opposite the Castle, there were NOIK shipyards and warehouses and a pool for light ships and boats that delivered cargo from ships in the roadstead. On the island of Onrust, a few miles from the coast, there was a dock where about 200 craftsmen and several hundred slaves worked, repairing ships or preparing them for sailing [Blusse, 2009, p. 122].

A distinctive feature (compared to Malacca or Manila) of the fortified city, built close to the Castle, where the commercial and military elite was located, was the joint residence of representatives of different nationalities who served the needs of the NOIC. These were the Dutch, Mardikers ( from Malay orang merdeka - "free") - Indians and Mestizos who converted to Christianity [Tyurin, 2004, p. 176], Portuguese who were captured after the Dutch captured Malacca in 1641, and Chinese. In the Ommelanden suburbs of Batavia, outside the city walls, there were kampongs (settlements) of various ethnic groups of the Archipelago - Bug, Balinese, Ambonians, Madurians - whose representatives served in the PLA army [Remco Raben, 2000, p. 93-107]. At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, 20 thousand people lived in the city, of which about five thousand people were Europeans and Indo (mestizos from marriages of Europeans and local women), and about 3500 people were Chinese [Blusse, 2009, p.122].

The 17th century was a time of prosperity for Batavia. NOIK, with its powerful navy and numerous trading posts, dominated the sea routes in Asia, especially in Indonesia and Malaya. The bustling trade and countless ships in the roadstead, the strong walls, the layout of streets and canals-all this made an impression on those who visited Batavia, which at that time received the name "Holland in the tropics". It was considered a city with a healthy climate. Johan Newhof, who lived in Batavia in the early 1960s, wrote that the climate here is "moderate and healthy", that " the best time comes in May, when the breeze begins to blow from the east, and this continues until November, when the winter season approaches with continuous three -, four-day rains... However, the rains are not useless: they destroy and wash away all insects and pests of fruit trees" [Nieuhof, 1988, p. 264].

Batavia of the 17th century was primarily a port, and the life of the city depended primarily on the incoming and outgoing ships that filled the outer roadstead (Blusse, 1986, p.102). From Batavia, located a hundred nautical miles from the Sunda Strait, one of the routes connecting the Indian and Pacific Oceans (the other is the Strait of Malacca), sea trade routes diverged west to the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, ending at Mocha on the Red Sea coast, and east through the Java Sea and the Banda Sea to the Moluccas (Spice Islands), north through the South China and East China Seas to Siam, Vietnam, Canton, Taiwan, and Japan. Batavia's advantage over most ports on the monsoon route was the sheltered bay surrounding it, accessible to ships at all seasons of the year. The monsoons set the rhythm for Batavia's trading operations: during the dry season (from May to October) constant winds blew from the east, and during the rainy season (from November to March), westerly winds did not stop. Johan Newhof wrote about the Batavian harbor: "In the bay itself and on its outer side are 17 or 18 islands, which are broken by strong winds and waves, which makes the Batavia roadstead one of the safest in the whole world, able to shelter about 1000 ships at a time; small vessels and longboats usually dock on the river banks, where they may not even drop anchor. muddy bottom of this river; a river enclosed on the sides by a stone parapet, for the night,

from nine o'clock in the evening, it is blocked by a bonfire, which is watched by numerous soldiers. A canal runs away from the river, where small vessels are stationed; no vessel can pass Beaune without paying a fee... " [Nieuhof, 1988, p. 265].

In the second half of the 17th century, the NOIC, which employed approximately 25,000 people (military and civilian) in the Netherlands and the colonies, annually equipped 25 ships to Asia and on the return journey, and about 40 of its ships plied the waters of the monsoon route, engaged in intra-Asian trade. Every year, three NOIK caravans left the harbors of the Republic of the United Provinces: The fair fleet left in September, during the Amsterdam Fair, the Christmas fleet in December or January, and the Easter fleet weighed anchor in April or May. After a 120 - to 200-day voyage accompanied by convoys, the caravans reached the Sunda Strait, from where they moved to the Bay of Batavia (Daghregister... 1922, blz. 132).

The shahbandar, or port master, was in charge of the placement of ships in the roadstead. In the eastern part of the roadstead was Shahbandar's ship, which observed the raid and accompanied with cannon shots the signal "Dawn" from the Batavian Castle and the drum roll-the onset of the night watch - on the parade ground [Chijs, 1892, blz. 141]. The approach of ships from the east and west was signaled by the guards from the islands of Edam and Onrust, respectively, after which the Shahbandar ship saluted the newcomers. Dutch sailor Wouter Schouten described the first hours of his stay in the Batavian roadstead as follows :" On arrival, a fiscal (customs official) immediately appeared on board. - V. T.) with his retinue, in order to inspect the ship and cargo for prohibited goods of private individuals. Finding nothing, they all returned to the shore. Then a whole horde of Chinese people showed up on the ship to find out if there were any retail items for resale. The crew immediately opened their chests and crates to make a profit. Glasses, needles, knives, hats, even woolen clothing were sold, and these clever Chinese bought everything, but at a cheap price. After the Chinese came to the ship in their small boats merchants - Moors (Muslims.), Javanese, Mestizo and Dutch, offering all kinds of fruits, food and drinks... those who couldn't restrain themselves soon fell ill: fever, diarrhea, and other charms. Some have died" [Schouten, 2003, blz. 45]. After the raid of retailers, there was a lull. The ship was unloaded, and if it came from the Netherlands, the European population looked forward to this unloading with impatience, because the ship delivered "all kinds of familiar provisions-bacon, salted meat, cheese, butter - and alcoholic beverages that Batavia needed and longed for "[Schouten, 2003, blz. 427]. It was not only the usual drunkenness of soldiers and sailors, but also the fact that gin served as almost the only disinfectant.

Each ship in the roadstead was served by a Chinese prau chosen by its captain, colloquially called biermaat, i.e. "beer drinking companion". This small craft delivered provisions and transported passengers and crew to the shore and back to the ship. All boats passed through the entrance barrier to the harbor of bon, where goods delivered from the ship and delivered to the ship were subjected to customs inspection [Haan, 1935, blz. 191]. Small local vessels could pass through the channel that crossed the pier and breakwater to the basin outside the city walls, where the shipyard where they were built was located [Nieuhof, 1988, p. 271]. Small vessels were also built in the "House of Prau" - a shipyard in the western part of the city. Large ocean-going ships were built on the island of Onryust, where there were foundries and blacksmith shops.

The port city of Batavia provided food not only to its inhabitants, but also to the crews of ships in the roadstead and those who set sail. There were warehouses where grain was stored in the port, and there were several food markets in the city: rice, fruit and poultry (they also sold dried fish). Fruit was grown by the Chinese in the gardens around the city, and mardeykers were engaged in breeding animals (chickens, pigeons, pigs) in the backyards of their homes. Near the mouth of the river was

The fish market (Pasar Ikan), where sea and river fish and "seafood" were sold from 10 am to 4 pm [Nieuhof, 1988, p. 272].

NOIK's overseas holdings were governed by the Governor-General, who presided over the Indian Council, whose five members met at the Castle on Tuesday and Friday afternoons. Navigation and trade were managed by the second - in-command Director-general of the Batavian Castle. He was responsible for loading and unloading ships, supplying them with food, and controlling all the NOIC trading posts scattered along the Asian Monsoon Route. He had a large staff at his disposal, including the Comptroller General and various sales agents [Dam, 1943, blz. 653]. The premises in the Castle where the General Manager's services were located were the most crowded. From early morning it was filled with ship captains, their assistants, and merchants, merchants without number... Someone wanted to speed up the loading, someone wanted to talk privately with a high rank of the NOIC. "It is not surprising," one of the most observant contemporaries remarked at the beginning of the eighteenth century, "that the director - general looked visibly tired at public events: after all, he was the busiest person in Batavia" (Valentijn, 1726, blz. 352). The arrival of merchant ships on the Batavian roadstead and their departure were clearly planned, and Francois Valentine, delighted with this, wrote:: "Since Batavia is the center and heart of the Company that infuses blood into the veins and arteries of its body, the most difficult task of management is to ensure that ships are supplied with everything they need on a daily basis, to carry out loading, and not to get lost in the flow of goods arriving from all sides-they must be sent to where they are needed and where you can get the maximum profit. After all, Batavia is the largest emporium in the Indies, it is here that there are warehouses filled with all sorts of spices, fabrics, grain, beverages and other goods intended for the whole of Asia " [Valentijn, 1726, blz. 357].

The departure and arrival of ships were mainly regulated by the monsoon rhythm, which was used to calculate the time of voyages from Batavia to various countries and the arrival of ships at the port, especially those that brought goods bound for Dutch ports between November and February, so that these goods would end up in the mother country in the summer. NOIC has used at least eight types of vessels to perform voyages to Europe, inter-Asian trade, and for military purposes (Parthesius, 2007, p. 138).

Between 1595 and 1660, the Dutch made 1,368 voyages between the Republic of the United Provinces and the "Indies" around the Cape of Good Hope, as well as 11,509 voyages in the South Seas. It was the emergence and development of the Batavian port that contributed to the growth of inter-Asian trade: between 1610 and 1620, NOIC ships made about a thousand voyages in the South Seas, and since 1650, their number in a decade has become 2,800 [Blusse, 2009, p. 131].

INTRA-ASIAN TRADE

At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, according to a well-informed F. According to Valentijn, the following picture emerges of the annual inter - Asian voyages carried out by the NOIC with its center in Batavia [Valentijn, 1726, blz. 256-261].

Japan. In May, June, and sometimes early July, the so-called yapanfaarders ("Japanese travelers") went to Nagasaki with Dutch and Indian fabrics, spices, and a number of other goods. In October or November, they would leave the Dutch trading post in Japan with a cargo of gold coins (koban), lacquer ware, porcelain, silk, copper tiles, tea, and Chinese goods imported to Japan. In Batavia, some of this cargo, along with the goods that came from China, as well as tin obtained from Malaya, were sent to Bengal or Iran, to be delivered at the latest

February. From there, ships loaded with cloth would return to Batavia and embark on a new voyage to the coast of Japan.

Coromandel. Between April and August, ships called at Jaffna in Ceylon on their way to Negapattinam and Pulikat on the east coast of India. There they loaded slabs of stone that were used as ballast on the voyage, and on arrival in Batavia - as material for tombstones, various fabrics, indigo, saltpeter and diamonds. The ships returned to Batavia in September, so the entire journey took two and a half months.

Ceylon, Surat and Persia. In early September, merchant ships sailed from Batavia to Galle in Ceylon with a cargo of spices and pre-ordered goods. From there, in October, with a fair north-easterly wind, they sailed to Cochin and Wingurla, ports on the Malabar coast (west coast of India). There they loaded the fruits of the areca palm (for chewing betel), pepper, cowry shells and coconut husks (for rope production). All this was delivered to the port of Surat on the north-west coast of India and to Iran. Sometimes ships from Ceylon went directly to Surat and Iran with cargo of spices, cardamom, pepper, copper and tin. In December, from time to time, ships from Ceylon went to the Netherlands. In February and March, after the ships returned to Ceylon from Persia and Surat, they prepared to sail for Batavia with a cargo of fabrics, Persian silk, Shiraz wine, precious products, candied fruits and horses. In May, two ships loaded with cinnamon were sent from the Dutch possessions in Ceylon to Batavia.

Bengal. In July and August, ships sailed to Bengal to sell Japanese copper plates and buy silk fabrics for Japan and cotton fabrics and opium for Java.

West and East coasts of Sumatra. The ships went there in April-May, and returned in August-September from the West Coast and in October - from the East, waiting for the flotilla to be sent to the Netherlands. NOIK bought gold dust and pepper, instead supplying the sultanates of Sumatra with fabrics.

Malacca. In May, Batavia sent goods for exchange for tin and pepper to Malacca from the Western Malay sultanates of the Malacca Peninsula and East Sumatra to this city captured in 1641 from the Portuguese, where the NOIC established its trading post. In September or October, warships and merchant ships sent from Batavia appeared in the Strait of Malacca to ensure the safety of ships traveling from Japan to Bengal (without calling at Batavia), and to reload some of the goods intended for Batavia.

Siam. The ships left the Batavian roadstead in June-August and sailed along the east coast of the Malacca peninsula with a passing south-west monsoon to the Siamese capital of Ayutthaya (Ayutthaya), where they arrived in September. They delivered weapons and textiles ordered by the royal court. They returned with the products of the rainforest (valuable wood species, hides, wax, ivory, etc.), leaving Ayutthaya in early November. On the way home, they stopped at the port of the Malay principality of Ligor (Nakhon Siammarat) "a vassal of Siam, where tin was bought.

China and Tonkin. They sailed there in May and July. Since the end of the 17th century, the NOIC did not conduct trade there, but was replaced by private individuals - "free burghers" (free burghers) of Batavia, merchants from Macau and Chinese traders.

Arakan. Trade with this kingdom, located in what is now Burma, near the borders of Bengal, was conducted by the NOIK trading posts on the Coromandel coast. In August and September, their agents bought rice, slaves, and elephants from Arakan, and in November they sailed to Batavia via the Strait of Malacca, or more rarely via the Sunda Strait, along the coast of West Sumatra.

Maluku, or the Great East (Grote Oost). Ships from Batavia sailed to the eastern part of the Malay Archipelago in December and February. They were carrying food supplies:

wheat, rice, bacon, butter, beer, spirits, vinegar for the employees and soldiers of the trading posts and fortresses that provided the NOIC monopoly on the spice trade. Between June and September, carrying cloves, nutmegs, sandalwood, swallows ' nests, and birds of paradise, the ships returned from the Moluccas to the Batavian roadstead in time for the departure of the grand fleet to the mother country.

Cape of Good Hope. Rice and textiles were delivered here in August and September. On the way back to Batavia, NOIC ships stopped at Mauritius for a cargo of ebony until the end of the 17th century. he wasn't completely knocked out.

It can be concluded that the dry period (from May to August) It was a time of intense intra-Asian trade for the NOIC, with most ships returning to Batavia in September and November with cargo destined for ships bound for the Netherlands. With the exception of occasional voyages from the Netherlands to Ceylon, all goods accumulated in the Batavian roadstead, indicating the decisive role of Batavia in the inter-Asian trade of the NOIC. Until almost the middle of the eighteenth century, Batavia's position as the main commercial center in the South Sea countries was not disputed, and all the evidence of contemporaries - both Dutch and other - is full of admiration for the appearance of the city and its inhabitants, the excellent conduct of trade operations and even the climate.

DECLINE

But closer to the middle of the XVIII century. Complaints about the high mortality rate of European personnel, management shortcomings, and falling trade revenues are becoming more frequent. And by the end of the 18th century, most of the Dutch had left the city walls and moved to the suburbs (Veltefreden, Meester Cornelis), fleeing from the canals filled with stagnant water and malaria. There are various explanations for why a habitable city has become one of the most dangerous places for health in the Archipelago in a few decades. Contemporaries believed that the Salak volcano was to blame for everything, the waste of the eruption of which fell in 1702 on the Chiliwong River, which flowed through the city center, and turned it into a dirty, smelly channel. The river and canals filled with stagnant water became breeding grounds for malarial mosquitoes, and during the construction of the new canal (Mokervaart) in 1733, hundreds of local workers died from malaria. There is another point of view: the NOIC unwisely created fish ponds in the Chiliwong estuary, which turned into malarial septic tanks (Brug, 1994). Travelers began to notice that the Company's employees were mired in luxury and corruption, and their wives were especially criticized - lazy, swaggering, surrounded by a host of slaves and servants, who succumbed to the "corrupting influence of the East" (Taylor, 1983, p. 92).

In the second half of the eighteenth century, the star of Batavia set. NOIK's inter-Asian trade declined due to strong British competition, as well as the arrival of enterprising Chinese and Bug sailors from Sulawesi in the South Seas. True, even at the end of the 18th century, the power and wealth of the NOIK seemed unshakeable to many. Dividends were regularly paid, and the Company's shares were sold at a price more than twice their nominal value [Tyurin, 2004, p. 177]. The gleaming facade hid, however, the rotten building. The Company's profits were falling: in 1693 they amounted to 48.3 million guilders, and in 1724-1725 its balance sheet was first reduced to a deficit, which in 1779 reached the amount of about 85 million guilders [Tyurin, 2004, p. 178], but since the reports were not published, and the accounting books in Batavia did not correspond While they were in Amsterdam, Dutch public opinion had no idea of the true state of affairs.

The costs of wars (in the 17th and 18th centuries, the NOIC captured Java and Madura, crushed the Bug principalities in Sulawesi, and established control over a large part of the Sumatran coast) and administration absorbed the lion's share of tribute revenues,

taxes, tax cuts and trade, and dividends to shareholders-the aristocracy and patriciate of the port cities of the Netherlands-a constant 18% per annum were paid at the expense of permanent loans.

The company was corrupt from top to bottom. Governors-general with a salary of 700 guilders a year returned home with a fortune of 10 million guilders, a junior merchant (all European employees of the NOIC, regardless of their position, had "trade" ranks: senior merchant, merchant, junior merchant, accountant, assistant accountant, etc. [Furnivall, 1967, p. 35]) officially paid 3,500 rubles. for the appointment to a post with a salary of 40 guilders per month and received an annual income of 40 thousand guilders in this position [Furnivall, 1967, p. 49]. Corruption reached such proportions that at the end of the Company's existence, an official tax was introduced on bribes received by its officials. Corruption was accompanied by outright theft: a million guilder shortfall in the Batavia Treasury was not discovered until the chief cashier died suddenly. Wits deciphered the abbreviated name of the Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) - VOC-as " Vergaan Onder Corruptie "("Buried under corruption") [Blusse, 1986, p. 33].

The causes of NOIC's decline and Batavia's desolation went deeper than scarcity and corruption. Despite the preservation and even some expansion of the Dutch colonial empire, from the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII century. The Netherlands loses its colonial, maritime and commercial hegemony, which passes to Great Britain. The main reason was that the Netherlands was lagging behind in industrial development. The commercial bourgeoisie of the country directed its accumulated capital mainly to the sphere of intermediary trade and usury.

The final blow to the colonial power of the Netherlands and its East India Company was dealt by the Anglo-Dutch war of 1780-1784. All ties between Indonesia and Europe were cut off, and a huge amount of goods accumulated in Batavia's warehouses. The Batavian authorities started issuing paper money, as silver and copper coins from the metropolis stopped coming. Under the peace treaty of 1784, the Netherlands granted English merchant ships freedom of navigation in the waters of the Archipelago. In 1786, an American ship first appeared in these waters, and in subsequent years, Americans began to actively trade in the Archipelago (Vlekke, 1960, p. 234). The Company's debts continued to grow, and it increasingly resorted to borrowing from the government. In 1789, its debt reached 75 million guilders, and in 1791 - 91 million. [Politika..., 1962, p. 35]. In the 80s and 90s of the 18th century, the ruling elite of the Netherlands unsuccessfully tried to improve the Company's affairs, creating countless commissions and putting forward various projects to reorganize the management of the Company and its colonial possessions. But the oligarchy and nobility of the Netherlands, as well as the Stadtholders (lit. "state holders") "the supreme rulers of the House of Orange, who were closely associated with the NOIC, did not dare and did not want to take decisive steps, limiting themselves to half measures.

In 1795, the Netherlands was occupied by the French army, the Batavian Republic was established, and the Orange dynasty fell. In 1798, the Government of the Batavian Republic decided to liquidate the NOIC. On December 31, 1799, when the Company's charter expired, all its holdings and debts (134 million guilders) were transferred to the state [Tyurin, 2004, p. 182].

* * *

Little remains of Batavia (now Jakarta) from the NOIK era. Back in the late 19th century, the main sea gate was the port of Tanjungiriok, a few kilometers from the Batavian roadstead. Closer to the shore, away from the current city center, there are several nondescript buildings of the XVIII century. Governor General Rainier's Mansion

de Klerka, where the National Archives of Indonesia were located until 1980, has been restored, and now wedding ceremonies are taking place there. The town Hall, built in 1710, houses the town's historical museum. Most of the channels are blocked up. At Pasar Ikan (Fish Market), where the old harbor canal connected to the sea, you can see several warehouses from the NOIK period and the Whitkaik Tower ("Lookout"), which was built in the early 19th century on the site of the Company's customs house. There is practically nothing left of the old city behind the fortress walls.

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