Our time brings back to life words and concepts that seem to have long been forgotten or half-forgotten and are located on the periphery of the language.

In Russian, the phrase infernal machine has been known for about two hundred years. Source-direct tracing paper from the French machine infernale. In French, this expression appeared after 1693, when the French used explosive devices of great destructive power connected to a clockwork mechanism against the English in Saint-Malo. Invented in 1657 by X. Huygens mechanical watches were adapted by the French for military purposes. The effect - mainly psychological-compared to the bombs (already known in Europe) was so great that a metaphorical designation was born in the language, based on a comparison with a fiery hell - machine infernale. The first written record of the expression dates back to 1704 (Tresor de la langue francaise. Paris, 1985. Vol. II), and it was used in the speech of the military until the end of the XVIII century. In 1800, this device was used to assassinate Napoleon Bonaparte, the first consul of the Republic. Since then, it has passed from professional language into general use and acquired a new meaning - "an explosive device with a clockwork mechanism used for the purpose of an attempt" (first recorded-1801; Littre E. Dictionnare de la langue francaise. 1964. Vol. 4; Tresor de la lange francaise. Paris, 1985. Vol. II). From French, it was converted (in the first third of the XIX century) to German - Hollenmaschine (Noll - hell), replacing the former Sprengkorper "explosive checker" (Spreng-explosion, Kdgreg-skeleton, body) and Zeitzunder "fire - conducting (Bickford) cord" ( Zeit - time, Zunder-west, fuse (Brockhaus Enziklopadie. Wiesbaden, 1969, Т. 8; Etymologisches Worterhuch des Deutschen. H.P. Berlin, 1989).

Before we begin to study the borrowed expression infernal machine, it is necessary to briefly focus on the history of the word machine in Russian, without knowing the semantics of the last bu-

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the existence of some phrases of interest to us in the Russian language at the end of the XVIII-beginning of the XIX century is unclear.

The word machine turned out to be borrowed twice: in the XV century from the Latin machina "construction, building" - mahina (only in translated texts in a narrow meaning - to denote siege weapons), and in the late XVII - early XVIII centuries - mahina (through the Polish machina; with emphasis on the first or second syllables) and machine (through German-Maschine, with an accent on the first syllable). The meaning at first was very vague: on the one hand, they tried to translate a foreign-language loan with the word tackle, on the other - in some texts you can see the opposition of the terms machine (mahina) and a tool. For example, the hygrometer in the XVIII century was called a machine, and the barometer - an instrument, at the same time a compass was referred to as a machine. The forms of machine and machina did not differ semantically practically throughout the XVIII century, co-existing in different areas of technology and remaining within the professional speech. In the 20-40s of the XIX century, there is a functional-stylistic and semantic separation of these designations: the colossus falls into the vernacular-regional speech (in the sense of "bulky, very large thing"), the machine remains within the limits of literary and book speech, acquiring new semantic shades, new compatibility capabilities. In the 50-60s of the XIX century, the stress on the second syllable was fixed-the influence of German stress.

It was the semantic vagueness of the term machine in the Russian language of the XVIII century that contributed to the fact that translations of the French machine infernale turned out to be very unusual. In the military sphere, this French phrase was interpreted with the expression infernal chain (a fortification term; here you can clearly see traces of the original use of this device as a series of explosive devices), infernal machine (a defensive term), in journalism - infernal machine, infernal projectile. Special uses are as follows: "infernal chain - under this word is meant the connection of a large number of wooden cubic boxes filled with gunpowder and sunk into the ground, which, when blown up suddenly or gradually, overturn and destroy the offensive approaches and works of the besieger" (Encyclopedia Lexicon, 1835, Vol. 1); "infernal machine - this is the name of the wooden crates. floating vehicles filled with gunpowder and other combustible substances and used to burn bridges and enemy ships" (ibid.).

At the same time, in the common language, the calculated phrase infernal machine was understood differently. At the end of the 18th century, a few years after the French Revolution of 1789, the following message appeared in the" Political Journal": "On the 21st of January, after 10 o'clock in the morning, (...) King of France, Louis XVI, beheaded in Paris

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publicly through the infernal machine called Gulyotina" (1793. Part 3). This phonetic and graphic appearance of the word guillotine in the XVIII century was not the only one: gallotina, galliomina, galleotina, galliotina, gallotina, galiotina. Equating the guillotine and the infernal machine did not seem strange then, since the semantically vague concept of "machine" could mean any large mechanism in general. See also the attempt to translate the French machine infernale with the phrase infernal projectile: "[The gendarme] is all alarmed: am I secretly carrying guns in the carriage? Isn't it an infernal projectile? " (Vyazemsky. Passage through France in 1851). However, with the semantic specialization of the word machine in Russian, the tracing paper infernal machine begins to be understood as follows: "a deadly projectile with combustible substances. The infernal machines were directed against Napoleon Bonaparte, the first consul of the French Republic (1800), and Louis Philippe, King of the French (1835)." Desktop dictionary for reference in all branches of knowledge. SPb., 1863. Vol. 1). This interpretation has not yet been said, but the approach of future terrorist acts is already deafly felt. The placement of this phrase in a reference publication indicated that this reality was still perceived as exotic.

Since the French Revolution, the Russian language has also begun to develop "terrorist" terminology. In the Russian language of the beginning of the XIX century, the concept of "terror" was already associated with revolution; the French terrifier was translated as "to frighten, to terrify", terroriser - "to cause terror", terrorisme - "terrorism, a formidable system of government", terroriste - "a terrorist acting according to a formidable system of government" (Full French-Russian dictionary. St. Petersburg, 1824. Vol. 2). The revolutionary form of government was perceived in the terminology of that time as "terrible", it was the closest semantic equivalent of the new adjective revolutionary for the Russian language. Hence the positive attitude of the revolutionary Democrats towards the terrorists: "Terrorist David welcomed them with athletic forms, which he thought to revive in the republic united and undivided..."(Herzen. About me); "...the millennial kingdom of God will be established on earth not by the sweet and enthusiastic phrases of the ideal and beautiful Gironde, but by terrorists - the double-edged sword of the word and deed of the Robespierres and Saint-Justes " (Belinsky. Letters to V. P. Botkin. Apr. 1842). Terms terrorist, terrorism, and terrorist party are found in the works of V. F. Odoevsky and P. V. Annenkov. In the current usage of words, they were more often associated with representations: "Jacobins, revolutionaries; Jacobin, revolutionary party" - of course, they do not yet have the connotations inherent in these words in modern speech.

There are two periods in the history of Russian terrorism: 1878-1892 and 1901-1911. Attempted suicide bombings

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the life of statesmen, " sudden (...) the death of which can bring the greatest fear to the government and, having deprived it of intelligent and energetic figures, shake its power" (Nechaev S. G. Catechism of a revolutionary), later connected the terrorists with infernal machines as tools for executing the sentence imposed by a group of conspirators or a lone terrorist. In the public consciousness, the term terrorist turned out to be saturated with negative associations (especially after the publication in newspapers of the "Catechism...", which discredited revolutionaries in public opinion).

In the ideology of the revolutionaries (Narodniks and later Marxists), the concept of "lone terrorist" gave way to the concept of "organized insurrection"-a revolution prepared by a party of like - minded people. At the end of the XIX century in Russian, in addition to the word terrorist, new designations appeared-bomber and bomb thrower. "We have among the revolutionaries ardent terrorists, there are desperate bombers" (Lenin. Zemstvo campaign and the Iskra plan); " [Ivan: My eyes also darken when I go outside. After all, the bombers also kill retired people, they don't care (...) They are beasts!" (Gorky. The latest ones); "Universities (...) overflowing with students-bom-bists" (Polovtsev. Diary); "They were also taken away from a dangerous house, near which bomb throwers will gather tomorrow, (...) the wife [of a dignitary] and two children" (L. Andreev. The story of the Seven Hanged men). Bombism becomes synonymous with the term terrorism:" Even the most absurd of the absurd defenders of bombism has not suggested, it seems, until now - to frighten (...) the zemstvos " (Lenin. Zemstvo campaign and the Iskra plan) - there is a refinement, narrowing of the once common (in the time of Herzen - Belinsky) term terrorist "Jacobin, revolutionary". The language mechanism of such substitution is metonymy: a part replaces the whole.

It is interesting to note the difference in the interpretation of the term bomber: in the" Complete Illustrated Dictionary of Foreign Words "by I. Weisblit (M.-L., 1926), bomber means "bomb thrower, bomb thrower, bomb cook", in Ushakov's Dictionary (Vol. I) with a newspaper mark(noe), this word is interpreted more harshly and from a completely different point of view. a certain pragmatic assessment: "a person who uses a bomb to commit terrorist acts." Please also indicate that the terms originated in the Russian language and are not borrowed. They easily distinguish the suffixes-ist, - ism; this model came to the Russian language at the end of the XVIII century from French, and in the middle of the XIX century - from German scientific terminology (- ist, - izm). Despite all the seductiveness of attributing the terms bomber, bombism to borrowing, they still appear to have originated on the basis of the Russian language, since historical dictionaries of the German language do not record these words.

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It is interesting that after the revolution of 1917, the term terrorist suddenly rekindled the meaning of "rebel, fighter, revolutionary" ("Wilhelm Tell-tyrant killer, terrorist." Lunacharsky. History of Western European literature. 9th lecture). However, the revolutionaries still had to distance themselves from the conjunction of these concepts in every possible way: "[Sokolova-Sofya:] I came to tell you that my son is not guilty, he could not have shot at your husband [Police Chief Kolomiytsev], you understand. My son couldn't have attempted to kill a man - he's not a terrorist! He is, of course, a revolutionary, like all honest people in Russia..." The latest ones). The sense of terror and fear that terrorists inspired in society at the beginning of the twentieth century is clearly evident from the following quote: "It must be said that at that time [1906], newly-minted governors, when going to their place of service, did not take anything with them except light luggage: a toothpick, a cigarette case and a change of underwear. All the same, in two or three days you will either be transferred, recalled to the ministry, or ordered to write a letter of resignation due to illness. Well, of course, the possibility of being blown up by a terrorist's bomb was also taken into account "(Kuprin. Napoleon's Shadow).

In the post-revolutionary years, the enemies of the Bolsheviks began to be classified as terrorists. It all started with the former" allies "of the anarchists, Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks (especially after the assassination attempt on Lenin; cf. the Soviet newspaper epithet of that era "brutal villains-terrorists"). In the 30s of the XX century, fascists ("rabid fascist terrorists") became terrorists. With the beginning of the Cold War, imperialist countries, especially the United States, were declared terrorists. We are already faced with the opposite linguistic process: the expansion of the content of the concept, in contrast to the pre-revolutionary one (cf. terrorist > bomber), when - depending on the era-different realities (denotations)are included in it: social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks > fascists > imperialists.

In the ideologically oriented journalism of the 60-70s of the XX century, there was another shift in the use of the words terrorist, bomber - their representatives began to be recognized as fighters against capitalism: "Isn't it clear that we are facing a clear attempt to prove to the Americans that any anti-war speeches, any dissent regarding the current aggressive foreign policy of the republican administration (...) It connects dissidents with "bombers" and "terrorists"" (Izvestia. 1971. March 7); "Let us return to the confession of the former bomber, it is not for those who condemn the world to live under a Bomb to accuse anyone of bombing" (A. Pumpyansky. Rebellious youth).

In general use, the phrase infernal machine at the beginning of the XX century was perceived as a completely neutral nominative unit: "When they opened it, it turned out to be an infernal machine-in vain-

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a house filled with gunpowder and designed to explode when opened" (L. Andreev. The governor); "He must be an anarchist, there are a lot of anarchists in Spain," I thought, and asked in a whisper: "A bomb? The infernal machine?""(I. Ehrenburg. The extraordinary adventures of Julio Jurenito and his students...). However, the ways to improve explosive devices and the concentration of new designations around the key concept of "bomb" lead to a redistribution of semantic and functional-stylistic relations between them: the infernal machine, more often associated with an improvised explosive device, begins to be perceived as a journalistic metaphor for a bomb-the second name is perceived nominatively primary, first-nominatively secondary, expressive-expressive.

It was at this time that a new term time bomb appeared in the language of the military. In the journalism of the 20-30s of the XX century, the phrase infernal machine in the direct meaning is already less common: "... the court presents a large amount of explosive materials confiscated from the accused, including 7 kg of dynamite, 100 grenades, infernal machines, a large number of revolvers and flares " (Izvestiya CEC. 1934. 23 Apr.) But new journalistic metaphors appear: "Fascism uses the whole infernal machine of threats and curses against Bolshevism" (Bolshevism, 1936. N IX);

"The infernal mechanics of preparing for a world imperialist war have become clearer" (Leningr. truth. 1934. August 1). In the future, the infernal machine for denoting an explosive device in the general language is already considered obsolete; for example. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (2nd ed.) gives the following definition of the concept: "a projectile equipped with a clockwork mechanism. The term "A. M." has fallen out of use. On the principle of automatic control, i.e., an explosion after a given period of time, so-called delayed-action mines are arranged" (1949, vol. 1).

However, the gradual decline in the use of the phrase infernal machine in the Soviet language of the 20-30s of the XX century was in stark contrast to the emigrant journalism, where this phrase was very active. The struggle against the Soviet regime and the Soviet system pushed some emigrant circles to commit terrorist acts. Therefore, in these publications, the phrase infernal machine is quite common: "Two terrorists in the uniform of the GPU command staff were captured in the Kharkiv GPU. They have an infernal machine of great power " (Voice of Russia. 1931. September 1); "In Ekaterinodar, a group of opponents of the Soviet government managed to place infernal machines in the headquarters of the fourth division of the Red Army "(Ibid.).

The use of the phrase infernal machine in Soviet times was supported by fiction: "The conspirators managed to bring Hitler into the headquarters (...) strong explosive charge and turn on

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the infernal machine " (I. Paderin. When the stones bloom), journalism referred readers to foreign realities: "The congress meetings were held in the assembly hall of the economics department of the local university. Yesterday this hall was blown up. The infernal machine exploded half an hour later, as the students and professors who were holding their meeting there left it "(Pravda. 1976. 25 Mar.). In recent years, the media has been returning this phrase in relation to our reality: "The security guard (...) I found on the windowsill from the street an explosive device consisting of two tnt blocks of 200 grams each, two electric batteries and a mechanical watch (...) The infernal machine, fortunately, did not work" (Aif. SPb., 1994. N 21). It is interesting that even in the first half of the 90s of the XX century, the designation infernal machine was considered by lexicographers to be out of use, historicism; in BAS-2 and in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova (even in the most recent editions) it is marked " obsolete(yeloe)". However, it is enough to turn on the TV, scroll through newspapers and magazines to make sure that this stylistic litter requires, apparently, clarification.

If the metaphorical use of the phrase infernal machine in the Soviet language began already in the 30s of the XX century, then in recent years the former military terms time bomb (mine), once in the language of journalism, also acquired a figurative meaning - "about what is a hidden threat, a danger to something, to someone": "...having transferred the dispute over the peninsula [Crimea] to the walls of its parliament, Russia tried to resolve it with seemingly peaceful and non-binding resolutions, which actually laid a time bomb" (Megapolis Express. 1992. June 10); "But there are hundreds of sects that don't advertise their activities as much. Their "teachers" and" gurus "left the stadiums to enter our homes-through books, the influence of which, perhaps not as fast as the "psychotronic sermon", but much more effective. Who will appreciate the danger of the "time bombs" that have settled on our bookshelves?" (Knizhh. review. 1994. N 48).

However, there is not only an actualization of concepts and filling them with new meaning and connotations: "Chechen" bombers "were trained near Volgograd" (Komsomolskaya Pravda. 1997. May 8). Along with this process, there is also a refinement of concepts, the appearance of new synonyms, for example, with the words bomber, terrorist in Russian, the term militant is now synonymized. In pre-revolutionary times, militants were called " members of the fighting squad in the revolutionary party "(Ushakov's Dictionary, Vol. I) - mainly maximalist Social revolutionaries in 1905-1907: "Even before 1905, the Combat Organization of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries was known, from which the militant, i.e., a member of the Boe-

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howl of the organization " (Kartsevsky S. I. Language, war and revolution. Berlin, 1923). In the late 80s of the XX century, the word returns from the periphery of the lexical system to its center, being updated and reinterpreted: "a well-trained and equipped member of an illegal armed group" (Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian language of the late XX century. Language Changes, St. Petersburg, 1998); " Action movie-how to understand it? Translated into legal language-terrorist. A person who is specially trained to commit a terrorist act" (Ogonyok. 1990. N 2). Of course, the words militant and terrorist in Russian have their own semantic differences, but both of them are included in the same conceptual field, which allows them to be considered synonymous at the level of everyday (mass) consciousness.

This article covers only some aspects of the formation of concepts and terms related to terrorism and weapons of violence. However, even such a small set of designations shows the ways in which their development, language transformation and dynamics took place, the impact of socio-historical factors on them, and how they were redistributed in the nominative, lexical, and stylistic system of the Russian language.

Saint-Petersburg

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