With special attention to Denmark, this article discusses to what degree religious education in public school in the Scandinavian countries, often said to be among the frontrunners as regards non-confessional religious education, reflects and accommodates an increased religious pluralism as well as public and political discourses linking national identity, social cohesion, the good citizen and society with the traditional majority religion as the basis for the (positive) values of the country, the society and the state in question. The article, which also discusses what is called the 'repoliticization' and 'securitization' of religion (with special regard to Islamophobia, Islam and immigrant Muslim minorities), concludes, inter alia, that parts of the RE curricula do not just include a wider variety of religions but also helps to counter, if not stop, changes that have to do with the new plurality of religions. The analysis indicates that religious education is meant to serve the promotion of social cohesion by way of promoting knowledge and understanding of the new multi-religious world, at the same time as it continues to promote and propagate, for example, Danish culture as Christian, and Christianity as the sine qua non for social cohesion.

This article, written on the basis of many years of research on this topic, also forms part of the author's contribution to the research project on religion in the public sphere, supported by the Russian Foundation for Science (grant N 17 - 18 - 01194) under the auspices of the Ural Federal University.

Translated from English by Alexander Aghajanyan.

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Keywords: religious education, RE, religious pluralism, re-politicization, securitization of religion, politics of identity, religion as cultural heritage.

Introductory remarks

In my previous articles, I had to cite the observation of Jean-Paul Villam, a sociologist of religion and former director of the French Institute for Religious Studies, who noted that all models of religious education (hereinafter referred to as RO) in Europe face the same type of problems for the same reasons, namely, the growth of religious pluralism and religious freedom. individualism 1. To this, I would like to add a few comments based on my own research on the RO in Europe, focusing on how discourses about religion in the public sphere affect political and educational discourses within the RO system, as well as its curriculum.

My first point reinforces Willam's observation: the changes and challenges associated with a new type of religious pluralism that has emerged as a result of globalization and the growth of religious minorities (including minorities within the dominant religion) have certainly influenced both various RO programs and international recommendations in this area. A review of recent RO changes in several European countries, which I will discuss below, confirms these changes.

At the same time, it seems clear to me that the latest research reveals more than a statement of these changes, and that in the future we must take into account other processes that cannot be reduced to the growth of religious pluralism alone.

First, contrary to the widespread and quite popular opinion or even discourse about the so-called " post-secular era "(or "post-secular society"), changes and challenges in the field of RO reflect-and statistics from different countries confirm this-the ongoing or even increasing process of secularization, understood in this case,

1. Willaime, J.-P. (2007) "Different Models for Religion and Education in Europe", in R. Jackson, et. al. (ed.) Religion and Education in Europe. Developments, Contexts and Debates, p. 57. Munster: Waxmann.

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as a constant decrease in the number of believers (both in terms of self-identification and practitioners) and, accordingly, an increase in the number of people who can be considered non-religious ("nones") or religiously indifferent.

Second, if there is anything that can be described as "post-secular" or " desecularization, "then I think the essence of this phenomenon is different forms of" repoliticization " of religion. Neo-nationalism and public identity politics turn again and again to religion: on the one hand, to the traditional religion of the majority (in Europe this is one or another form of Christianity), on the other hand, to Islam. Another point, often closely related to the former, is the discussion of the" right " or desired relationship between religion and politics, religion and democracy, religion and social inclusion, and the theoretical and factual relationship between religion (especially Islam) and violence/terrorism. We can say that religion has become to some extent the central and vividly discussed topic of public debate.

Third, European public and political discourses about religion (about religion and politics, about the "right" and "wrong" place of religion in society, in the public sphere, in the state) relate primarily to two religious traditions - Islam and dominant Christianity. It is Islam in the face of Muslim minorities, as well as the fear of Islam that has existed for decades, that influences the debate about RO. Although some parts of Europe still speak of "dangerous cults" (such as Scientology), Islamophobia has certainly now overshadowed the fear of "cults" and new religious movements, not just the fear of militant Muslims or terrorist Muslims, but the danger of a growing Muslim presence as such.

Thus, the" repoliticization "of religion includes what may be called the" securitization " of religion.2 Religion-in the CCA-

2. Securitization becomes the rationale for various initiatives - political, public, educational, aimed at protecting order. Ole Waever, a well-known Danish political scientist, has proposed a theoretical understanding of studies of the representation of Islam in the media. See, for example, the applicability of this theoretical foundation for the study of Islam in the Danish media: Christensen, H. R. (2006) " Sikkerhedsliggorelsen af Islam: De syv landsdaskkende avisers fremstilling af islam som en trussel i 2001", Religion 1: 57-68. On the process of Islamization of immigrants and securitization of Islam in Denmark, see also: Jensen, T. (2007) "Islam and Securitization of Islam".

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Islam, but not only - is an important part of the agenda not only for politicians, secret services and police of national states, but also for politicians of the European Union and those organizations that are responsible for the international security system. Consequently, not only a new type of "religious pluralism", but also a similar new type of "securitization" of religion (especially Islam) is largely reflected in many recommendations concerning RO. The OSCE Toledo Guidelines, the so-called REDCo (Religion on Education, Dialogue and Conflict) project , and the Signposts project all express the hope that RO will help make the world safer, strengthen social and political cohesion, and counter religious conflicts.3
Now I would like to emphasize another equally important starting point for analyzing RO models: in many countries, the public school remains a key tool of the state for educating and socializing future citizens who would share the most important "values" of this society and the state. It is obvious that these "values", or so-called "cultural heritage" and "national identity", have always been strongly influenced by the dominant religion. These "values" or " shared preferences "are seen as prerequisites for a" proper society", social, moral and political order, and an increase in the number of citizens or residents who may not share these values and preferences is seen as a threat to order, well-being and security.

Muslims in Denmark. An Introduction", ILU. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones Anejos, Anejo XXI: 107 - 138; Jensen, T. (2012) "The Muhammad Cartoons: Freedom Fighting and Islam Bashing", in A. Humayun, F. Hafez (eds) From the Far Right to the Mainstream, pp. 91 - 111. Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag.

3. All the above-mentioned supranational recommendations are highly valued, but, in my opinion, somewhat overrated; see, for example, Jackson, R. (2014) Signposts - Policy and Practice for Teaching about Religions and Non-Religious World Views in Intercultural Education. Council of Europe Publishing: Strasbourg Cedex. These recommendations claim to take into account strict religious studies approaches. However, as my analysis reveals, these projects are more likely to contain a pro-religious or inter-religious agenda: see Jensen, T. (2008) "RS based RE in Public Schools - A Must for a Secular State", NUMEN 55(2 - 3): 133 - 136; Jensen, T., Kjeldsen, K. (2014) Baseline Study. European Projects and Recommendations Involving Religious Education (RE). EU, Lifelong Learning Programme: Intercultural Education through Religious Studies (IERS).

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Consequently, the analysis of the RO problem must inevitably take into account these different aspects: on the one hand, the reaction of the RO system to an increasingly multi-religious society, and on the other hand, the state's desire to use the RO to protect and strengthen the traditional religion of the majority, its key role in preserving the unchanging national identity, that is, in fact, for the-the religious system that prevailed in the past. Therefore, often the main goals of the RO remain unchanged, even if new terms are introduced and new goals are formulated that reflect the changes. Similarly, the proposed school subject on religion, presented as an alternative to traditional confessional education, is often not a real alternative, but rather a substitute for confessional education, and it is the latter that is often associated with the source of those moral principles that can be the basis of a "correct society".

Religious education: a brief overview and terminology

"Religious education" and its abbreviation-RO (RE) are widely used and refer to different types of educational programs for teaching religion (or knowledge about religion) in schools. RO, both on paper and in practice, takes different forms, which have already been described many times 4.

Although the Russian reader can read an extremely useful review of RO models in Marianna Shakhnovich's article in this issue of the journal, I will still allow myself to briefly focus on several classifications, categories, and terms that are less common in other works.

4. A number of books and articles on RO listed in the bibliography include descriptions of the terminology and types of RO. Nevertheless, from the point of view of religious studies analysis, special attention should be paid to: Alberts, W. (2007) Integrative Religious Education in Europe. A Study-of-Religions Approach. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter; Alberts, W. (2008) "Didactics of the Study of Religions", NUMEN 55(2 - 3): 300 - 334; Jensen, T. (2005) "European and Danish Religious Education: Human Rights, the Secular State, and 'Rethinking Religious Education and Plurality", Journal of Religion & Education 32(1): 60 - 78; Willaime, J.-P. "Different models for religion and education in Europe". An overview of discussions that differ from the purely religious approach can be found in Jackson, R. Signposts - Policy and Practice for Teaching About Religions and Non-Religious World Views in Intercultural Education or Schreiner, P. (2015)" Religious Education in the European Context", in J. Berglund, Th. Lunden, P. Strandbrink (eds) Crossings and Crosses. Borders, Educations, and Religions in Northern Europe, pp. 139 - 153. De Gruyter.

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Education within the framework of state secular education in general education schools, whether primary or secondary, can be carried out in the form of confessional lessons included in the usual schedule, supported by the state (in various forms), conducted by teachers (or" teacher-preachers", preacher-teachers) who have been trained and receive a salary in the relevant denomination (religion majority/minority / denomination, etc.), or teachers trained by the state and paid by it. Although confessional education can take many forms, it is usually based on the teachings of a given religion/denomination, and its main purpose is to make this teaching religiously and morally understandable to students whose parents (most often, but not always) associate themselves with or belong to the relevant religion/denomination. Today, the opportunity to opt out of such lessons is the norm, and in this case, the school offers an alternative in the form of a lesson in ethics, philosophy, or a combination of ethics, philosophy, and religious studies.

Confessional education is both learning about religion and learning from religion, especially the one to which the student belongs. No matter how confessional education differs from religious education in the family and from catechesis in a religious community, it always means introducing the student to the teaching of a given denomination.

Non-denominational RO includes a wide range of variants, but most often it - at least in principle and unlike the confessional version-cannot be based on the teachings of any particular religion. Accordingly, teachers in this case receive training not in religious organizations, but in secular state courses for teachers. Again, in theory (in the case of non - denominational RO), the approach to the religions studied should be unbiased, and the concepts and methods used should be the same for all religious areas discussed in the lessons. This is what is called learning and teaching about religion (s), and it is often argued that this approach is essentially religious studies.

This type of PO is common in England, Scotland and the Scandinavian countries. It should be added that it is this approach (objectivity, criticality and pluralism) that is considered appropriate.-

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in accordance with the requirements of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) for compulsory education, that is, where there is no possibility of refusal or alternative - precisely because the course based on such principles does not conflict with the rights of parents.5
German researcher Wanda Alberts proposed a different classification, which distinguishes between integrative, separative and aspect RO (integrative, separative, dimensional). If the first two types more or less correspond to confessional and non-confessional education; the third type refers to the approach (adopted primarily in France) when knowledge about religion is taught not as separate special lessons in the school schedule grid, but as aspects of other school subjects, such as history, art, literature; in such a case, it is necessary to take into account In this case, teaching religious knowledge does not require special teacher training 6.

Another typology was developed by Katharina Frank based on her research on RO in Switzerland. Based on various empirical data, including classroom observations, Frank distinguishes between two forms: (1) knowledge of religion as such (religiose) and (2) a culturkundliche approach to the transmission of this knowledge. Both types are further divided into two sets of sub-categories: (a) narrative PO, dogmatic PO, and life-related PO.-

5. See discussion on the challenges faced by RO in Norway to meet human rights standards: Andreassen, V.-O. (2013)" Religion Education in Norway: Tension or Harmony between Human Rights and Christian Cultural Heritage?", Temenos 49(2): 137-164. This is a kind of example that shows how difficult it is for a formally non-denominational PERSON to meet not only human rights norms, but also religious standards.

6. См. Alberts, W. Integrative Religious Education in Europe. A Study-of-Religions Approach. The situation in France is related to the specific French concepts of the secular state, the state school, and their relationship to religion (the French laicite principle), as well as to the approach to religion as a phenomenon that needs to be studied as a cultural and historical variable, in the context of place and time, and not as something sui generis., van den A. (2011) "Teaching about Religious Issues within the Framework of the French" Laicite", in L. Franken, P. Loobuyck (eds) Religious Education in a Plural, Secularized Society. A Paradigm Shift, pp. 55 - 67. Munster: Waxmann; Gaudin, P. (2014) "Enseignments des faits religieux et laicite en France", in J.-P. Willaime (ed.) Le defi del'enseignement des faits religieux a l'ecole, pp. 241 - 257. Paris: Riveneuve; Jensen, Т., Kjeldsen K. (2014) Baseline Study. Religious Education in France. EU, Lifelong Learning Programme: Intercultural Education through Religious Studies (IERS) [http://iers.unive.it/about/research/, accessed on 04.02.2015].

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focused RO (narrative, dogma-related, lifeworld-related). (b) Historical, sociological and comparative research 7.

The author of this paper and Karna Hjeldsen have jointly developed another classification (and terminology). It is based on the classification proposed by Donald Weebey for the theological or quasi-theological (theology or theology-like) study of religion. Following the Uibi, we use the terms Confessional PO (with a capital letter) and confessional PO (with a lowercase letter). The latter type is not formally (or perhaps actually) associated with any particular religious denomination, but nevertheless is based on a "religious understanding of religion" and pursues, even if implicitly, the goal of "promoting" religion, religiosity, and religious values as such. Weebie writes:

Any non-critical way of thinking about God or gods that relies on revelation and authority, or on "theistic presumption," and therefore refuses to accept the possible non-existence of God or gods, is " confessional theology." Such theology is a kind of what I prefer to call "religious thinking" that exists entirely within the framework of religious assumptions or within a particular religious tradition and is therefore incompatible with what we will later consider to be the basic minimum prerequisite for the academic study of religion.8
The analysis of numerous allegedly non-denominational and non-religious forms of RO has revealed many traces of such "religious thinking", regardless of whether it is present within the general field of religious assumptions or in a specific religious tradition, and I believe that such "confessional" thinking is the most important thing.

7. See in particular Frank, K. (2010) Schulischer Religionsunterricht. Eine religionswis-senschaftlich-soziologische Untersuchung, Stuttgart, Kohlhammer; Frank, K. (2015) "Von der Grundlagenforschung zur Anwendung. Eckdaten einer empirisch gegrundeten Religionsdidaktik", in E.-M. Kenngott, et al (Hgs.) Konfessionell - interreligios - religionskundlich. Unterrichtsmodelle in der Diskussion, ss. 197 - 216. Stuttgart, Kohlhammer; Frank, K., Bochinger, Ch. (2008) "Religious Education in Switzerland as a Field of Work for the Study of Religions: Empirical Results and Theoretical Reflections", NUMEN 55(2 - 3): 183 - 217.

8. Wiebe, D. (1984) "The Failure of Nerve in the Academic Study of Religion", Studies of Religion 13: 405.

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RO "(with a lowercase letter) has a lot in common with "life-oriented RO" according to the above classification of people.

In principle, one can speak generally of a religious RO (as well as an inter-religious RO) - as opposed to a non-religious or secular RO, since the term "confessional" can be perceived as too close to the catechesis system or as denoting the formation of a specific "denomination" ("denomination"). As already mentioned, a distinction should be made between teaching religion as opposed to teaching knowledge about religion (teaching religion vs. religious education). teaching about religion), as well as obtaining knowledge about religion - as opposed to learning about religion (learning about religion vs. learning from religion). The position of scholars like Alberts and some others, like my own, is to support non-denominational, secular, and non-religious education based on learning not from religion itself, but from the study of religion.9

Multi-confessional and non-confessional religious education as a response to changes and challenges

As I have already outlined in the introduction, the dominant discourses on the challenges of globalization, the growth of religious diversity, human rights, and the clash of cultures are reflected in a number of supranational recommendations - in particular, in the recommendations of the Council of Europe, the EU, and the OSCE. These recommendations see RO as a key to conflict resolution or a step towards protecting human rights, tolerance, peace and mutual respect.

What all these recommendations share is the need to ensure that schools provide religious instruction that is balanced, impartial, and pluralistic. The authors of these recommendations see the goal of RO as developing students ' civic responsibility and tolerance, as well as contributing to the development of intercultural and interreligious dialogue, strengthening public solidarity, democracy and human rights.

The challenges discussed are reflected not only in the international recommendations , but also in individual countries.-

9. As I recall, this formulation was first proposed by Wanda Alberts (Alberts, W. "Didactics of the Study of Religions", pp. 320-321).

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This includes areas where religious education supported by the confessional state continues to dominate (for example, in some predominantly Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain, as well as in almost all German Countries10).

In the German " lands "there is a clear increase in what can be called" multi-confessionalism", that is, an increase in the number of denominations whose supporters are allowed to offer their children confessional education with the support and at the expense of the state, but through religious institutions (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Jewish or Muslim). The same trends can be seen when analyzing national and local educational programs and textbooks, and therefore directly in the classroom: despite the fact that teaching is mainly focused on the relevant religion/denomination, it is considered normal to tell about other religions / denominations, even if such a story does not fully meet the requirements of objectivity, neutrality, or impartiality and criticisms that are imposed by the RO course based on a religious studies approach.

Thus, other religions are still present in the confessional field in Germany. However, its purpose (unlike the non-denominational RO in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), despite all international recommendations and despite the presence of other religions, is, by and large, to introduce students to the dogma, rituals, and history of "their" church/religion and to demonstrate its relevance both for modern society and for other religions. to form the identity of students. RO is aimed at forming the student's personal spiritual and religious identity and the so-called "religious dimension" as a whole.

10. See recent reports on RO in these countries in: Jensen, T, Kjeldsen, K. (2014) Baseline Study. Religious Education in Italy. EU, Lifelong Learning Programme: Intercultural Education through Religious Studies (IERS) [http://iers.unive.it/about/research/, accessed on 20.11.2017]; Jensen, T, Kjeldsen, K. (2014) Baseline Study. Religious Education in Spain. EU, Lifelong Learning Programme: Intercultural Education through Religious Studies (IERS) [http://iers.unive.it/about/research/, accessed on 20.11.2017]; Jensen, T, Kjeldsen, K. (2014) Baseline Study. Religious Education in Germany. EU, Lifelong Learning Programme: Intercultural Education through Religious Studies (IERS) [http://iers.unive.it/about/research/, accessed on 20.11.2017]. The situation in France is, of course, special (see the report on France also in: Jensen, T., Kjeldsen, K. (2014) Baseline Study. Religious Education in France. EU, Lifelong Learning Programme: Intercultural Education through Religious Studies (IERS) [http://iers.unive.it/about/research/, accessed on 20.11.2017], а также Kerchove, van den A. "Teaching about Religious Issues within the Framework of the French "Laicite"; Gaudin, P. "Enseignments des faits religieux et laicite en France").

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a fundamental dimension of human life and the source of true values and morals. Other religions are taught to enable students to make the right personal choices in a world with diverse worldviews, and to develop their capacity for active citizenship and tolerance, as well as for intercultural and interreligious dialogue.11
Religious education in the Scandinavian countries 12

Norway13

In Norway, the transformations and changes discussed above also became gradually noticeable: a significant shift to non-denominational STATUS occurred in the late 1960s. In 1969. RO took the form of Kristendomskunnskap (Knowledge of Christianity); then, in 1997, KRL, Kristendomskunnskap med religions-od livssynsorienting (Knowledge of Christianity, religion and philosophy as life orientations); in 2008, RLE, Religion, livssyn og etik (Religion, philosophy of life and ethics); finally, in 2015 G.-KRLE, Kristendom, Religion, livssyn og etik (Christianity, religion, worldview, ethics).

All these changes in the name of the course are very telling: from almost confessional Christian indoctrination (instruction-like teaching) - to a non-confessional story about Christianity, other religions and non-religious worldviews and ethics; then - to a non-confessional story about religion,

11. It should be mentioned that in countries with dominant confessional education (such as Spain, Italy, Germany and Belgium), there are attempts to introduce some form of non-confessional education. However, I will not touch on this issue here.

12. Scandinavia in this case includes only Denmark, Norway and Sweden and does not include Finland and Iceland. Up-to-date studies and reviews of RO in the "Nordic Countries" (including all those mentioned) are published in a special thematic issue of Temenos, Nordic Journal for Comparative Religion 2013 49 (2), guest edited by Wanda Alberts and the author of these lines (Temenos is an open access journal, and all its materials can be downloaded for free http://ojs.tsv.fi/index.php/temenos/issue/view/1154). When I refer here to the situation in Norway and Sweden, I rely heavily on this special issue, and the responsibility for reporting the results in this case lies entirely with me.

13. См. Andreassen, B.-О. "Religion Education in Norway: Tension or Harmony between Human Rights and Christian Cultural Heritage?".

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worldviews and ethics; later - again about religion, worldviews and ethics, but again with a noticeable emphasis on Christianity as the primary and main religion.

In Norway, as in other countries, RO was often considered and used as an important tool in the culture wars, when the state and educational authorities constantly sought to ensure that this school subject primarily served the role of protecting Christianity and Norwegian culture as Christian culture, but also as a course that supports respect for other traditions. democracy, human rights norms (including freedom of religion), mutual understanding and thus social cohesion. It can even be argued that the RO was used, including in recent times, as a marker and basis for a national identity deeply rooted in dominant Christianity; it served as a "defensive reinforcement" or "security measure" to prevent possible social or cultural unrest caused by globalization and the growth of religious and cultural pluralism.

At the same time that the transition from KRL to RLE demonstrated the Norwegian government's efforts to bring RO into line with international law in the areas of religious freedom, equality, democracy, and tolerance, the situation was being considered by the UN and the ECHR, which drew attention to neo-nationalists ' attempts to use this school subject to equate the Norwegian culture with that of the cultural and Christian culture. A thorough analysis of RLE in 2015 led some researchers (in particular Alberts14) to conclude that it would be fairer to call the subject not RLE, but KRLE (adding the word "Christianity" at the beginning), since "other religions" and "religion in general" are not present in it by themselves, namely in relation to "our" dominant religion (Christianity). This is exactly what happened: the course was adjusted by the decision of the center-right government, which includes the Christian Democrats, and received the name KRLE. Christianity is an integral part of" our " Norway, Norwegian culture and heritage, and therefore it should be passed on to future citizens, including both recent migrants and refugees, as well as the growing number of religiously indifferent (nones).

14. See Ibid., p. 147.

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Sweden15

In the same year 1969, when Norway introduced the non-denominational Kristentumskunnskap, Sweden implemented the program Religionskunskap instead of Kristendomskunskap - "religious education " instead of"study of Christianity". An important milestone was the year 2000, when Sweden decided to secularize: since that year, the concept of a state church has become a thing of the past. Moreover, the Swedish Constitution (unlike, for example, the Danish One) prescribes the state to promote the development of a multicultural society, assuming integration, and not assimilation of "others"arriving in the country. At the same time, it should be noted that Sweden (again in contrast to Denmark) has so far (2017) insisted, despite some restrictions in recent years, on opening its borders to a very large number of refugees and immigrants, including immigrants from Muslim countries. Similarly, Sweden's political elite openly rejects the xenophobic (Islamophobic) far-right nationalist political party Sverigedemokraterna. For comparison, in Denmark, a party of the same type - Dansk Folkeparti-for decades it has played a very significant role in politics in general and in the development of a political line regarding immigration, culture, education, as well as Islam and Muslims.

Therefore, it is quite natural to assume that the Swedish RO system is among the most advanced in terms of including religions other than the dominant Lutheran form of Christianity, as well as other non-religious worldviews; in general, we have an almost ideal model of a secular, impartial, neutral and religious-based RO. In contrast to Denmark, the state curriculum of RO in Sweden requires that from the very first day of training you should provide information about different religions of the world and different forms of Christianity, emphasizing the importance of those religions that are "spatially close". Despite the use of the word "other/other "(in combination with "Christianity and other world religions"), this" otherness of other religions " is deliberately muted in the Swedish RO program. Generally,

15. О шведском РО см.: Berglund, J. (2013) "Swedish Religion Education: Objective but Marinated in Lutheran Protestantism?", Temenos 49(2): 165 - 184; также Alberts, W. Integrative Religious Education in Europe. A Study-of-Religions Approach.

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The Swedish policy in this area, with its pronounced multicultural orientation, is designed to strengthen a model of national and cultural identity that does not imply a close connection with the dominant religion.

However, as Jenny Berglund pointed out, Swedish RO is still "pickled" in Lutheran Protestant Christianity. In addition, the culture wars, with numerous references to religion by most parties, also played out in Sweden during the revision of the syllabus (course program) in 2010, when the Minister of Education insisted on a clearer distinction between Christianity and other world religions. At the same time, the study of psalms was introduced into the course. The state, despite its multicultural approach, insists on the importance of "ethics developed by the Christian tradition as the foundation of Swedish social values" 16.

Looking at the situation in Norway and Sweden, it is obvious that the RO includes other religions other than the dominant Christianity. RO systems have taken into account the impact of globalization and growing pluralism. Nevertheless, it is equally obvious that the RO is a tool for maintaining and supporting the" we-identity " of the Christian majority. Perhaps in my analysis of these two Scandinavian countries, I am influenced by the experience of my own research on school education in Denmark. Let us now take a closer look at the Danish case.

Denmark17

Folkeskolen (folk schools) is a common name for Danish primary and secondary public schools. This combination is consonant with the name of the state Evangelical Lutheran Church, Folkekirken

16. Berglund, J. "Swedish Religion Education: Objective but Marinated in Lutheran Protestantism?", pp. 172 - 173, 175 - 176.

17. See first: Jensen, T., Kjeldsen, K. (2013) "RE in Denmark - Political and Professional Discourses and Debates, Past and Present", Temenos 49(2): 185-223, and Jensen, T., Kjeldsen, K. Baseline Study. European Projects and Recommendations Involving Religious Education (RE); see also my other works mentioned above. Some parts of the following review almost completely coincide with the parts of the article mentioned above in this note. For an account of the processes before 1989 and an analysis of important changes in 1989, see: Jensen, T. (1994)" Islam i bestemmelserne for religionsfaget i folkeskolen, gymnasieskolen og pa HF", in T. Jensen (ed.) Islam i skolen, pp. 24-31, 40ff. Kobenhavnerstudier i tospogethed 20. Danmarks Lasrerhojskole, Center for multikulturelle studier, Institut for Dansk, Fremmedsprog og Religion: Kobenhavn.

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(People's Church), which, according to the Constitutions of 1849 (§3) and 1953 (§4), enjoys the direct support of the State.

Folkeskolen (then under a different name) was founded in 1814 and taught religion( Christian teaching), reading, writing and arithmetic. The Law on Education stated that education in schools should generally contribute to the dannelse (formation, Bildung) of children, which at that time, of course, was inconceivable without Lutheran teaching and inseparable from it. A proper society was a Christian society, and a good citizen was necessarily a Christian.

I am convinced that this goal and this way of thinking have been and remain dominant - despite all the subsequent modifications associated with historical changes, and despite secularization and pluralization. However, it is now argued that the so-called Christian values are closely linked to secular, democratic and human rights values and are considered as an instrument of implicit or explicit formation of citizenship, and this applies to both the RO and the school as a whole.18
Up to 1933, school education was generally conducted in accordance with the teachings of the Church, and until 1937 the State Church was the supervising and checking body. In 1933, the church's control over the school was restricted to religious education proper, and from 1949 to 1970 (when this control was finally abolished) The priest's" authority " in the school consisted only in the right to attend RO's lessons. In the Education Act of 1937, the article on the conformity of school education to the teaching of the Church was removed. Instead, paragraph 1 (3) of the Education Act stated that " Christian instruction (in Danish kristendomsundervisningen) in public schools must conform to Evangelical Lutheran teaching ("doctrines" = Laere in Danish)." The People's Church" (Undervisningsministeriet 1937). In 1960, the name was changed to Kristendomskundskab / religion, and now the guidelines allowed for the possibility of telling about "foreign religions". Up to 1975. RO was openly confessional.

With the adoption of the new Education Act in 1975, the subject received a new name-Kristendomskundskab (knowledge of Christianity), and the corresponding paragraph 5 (1) of the Basic Law on Education

18. Compare this Law on education [https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=l45631, accessed on 30.01.2015].

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Now it read: "The main area of study of Christian teaching is Evangelical Lutheran Christianity of the Danish People's Church (Folkekirken) (Undervisningsministeriet 1975a)." In 1975, they also introduced a new mandatory topic (but not a separate subject) - Fremmede religionaire og andre livsanskuelser (Foreign religions and other worldviews). However, teaching about " foreign religions "took place only in grades 6 - 9 and 10 and only as part of the main school subjects: Danish language, history, geography, social studies (Samtidsorienting') and the subject" knowledge about Christianity " (Kristendomskundskab).

Although the introduction of this additional topic ("foreign religions") indicated an academic approach to the study of religion, it was theology that dominated the teaching of the Christian religion within the Kristendomskundskab. Despite the fact that the study of Christian texts suggested a certain historical and critical approach, the following was considered equally important:: "to give students an understanding of religious beliefs that would contribute to their formation and independence in dealing with existential life issues [menneskelige livssporgsmal] of a personal or social nature" (Undervisningsministeriet 1975b, §4, stk 3).

Thus, it was still implied that there was a natural connection between religion, religious concepts, on the one hand, and existential questions and morality, on the other. The teaching of religion, especially Christianity, continued to promote the formation of highly moral and responsible citizens.

The special status of the subject even after 1975 (and still in 2017) is also indicated by the following circumstance: RO classes are suspended in the 7th or 8th grade, during the period when most students attend preparatory classes in the church before confirmation; however, the possibility of evasion remains. In addition, RO was the only school subject specifically mentioned in the general purposes of the Education Act. Secularization and deconfessionalization were thus far from complete. That is why we called this subject "confessional" (with a lowercase letter).19. So he remains to this day.

19. Jensen, T., Kjeldsen, K. "RE in Denmark - Political and Professional Discourses and Debates, Past and Present", pp. 188 - 189.

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If 1975 was the peak of RO secularization in Denmark, then 1989 can be seen as the first and most obvious step towards desecularization. Since at the same time it was possible to observe a slight but still growing religious diversity, the Danish authorities decided that RO was the best fit to promote "Danish culture" as a Christian culture. The objectives of the subject were restated as follows:

Goal... the goal is for students to acquire knowledge about Christianity in its various forms in the past and present. The starting point is stories from the Bible. Students should be introduced to the fundamental values of Danish culture... In secondary schools, an idea of the relationship (or "encounter", modet) of Christianity with other religions and worldviews is introduced (livsopfattelser), so that students get an idea (far forstaelse for) of other lifestyles and attitudes (Undervisningsministeriet 1989).

From that moment on, for the first time, a separate subject about other, non-Christian religions was introduced in the RO. Nowhere is it clearly explained why this happened, but a thorough analysis of the relevant part of the guidelines (Afsnit 5, Kapitel II) reveals two important factors: what is now called "globalization" (in those years, it was expressed in the fact that Danes began to travel abroad more often, and foreigners-immigrants, on the contrary). coming to Denmark), and what is called "secularization". However, it is also clear that "foreign religions" were introduced to the curriculum insofar as "Christianity today is in a global dialogue with non-Christian religions", and this point of view is recorded in the curriculum of courses for teachers of RO 1985.20

However, as can be seen from the preamble to the administrative instructions of the Minister of Education B. Haarder (Undervisningsministeriet 1989), "other religions and worldviews" are associated with what is considered andloshed og okkultisme-lack of spirituality and occultism, and then it is tempting to conclude that so-called "foreign religions" (and religions outside Denmark,

20. Ср. Jensen, Т. "Islam i bestemmelserne for religionsfaget i folkeskolen, gymnasieskolen og pa HF", p. 39, 41ff.

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and the "foreign way of life" (still "foreign", even if it exists here among "us") were introduced into the program solely to refute them and combat their influence on the dominant Danish culture-the majority culture. Teaching was supposed to take the form of "meeting Christianity with other religions." As a religious scholar, I have never been able to fully understand what was meant by these words; one thing is certain: religions never "meet", never "engage in dialogue"; religions do not speak or walk.

Much clearer, though still very strange, in my opinion, looks in the guidelines this affirmative "we" - a combination of the theologically rooted" we "of the Danish Christian majority with the secularized" we "of the same majority, since the Danish Christian" we", unlike the Muslim" they", accepts secularization. In this context, "secularism" seems to mean a more" mature "and" refined " form of religion-religion as a private, spiritual and moral phenomenon. In the end, a study of the guidelines leads us to the conclusion that the Danish "we" met with " children of immigrants "(i.e., Muslims) who became "students of a Danish school, where they are visible due to their special clothes, special food habits and deviant attitude to most of what seems natural to us" (Undervisningsministeriet 1989, 43)21.

Thus, it is obvious that the presence of the "other" was clearly reflected in the concept of RO already in 1989. "we" themselves did not fully understand what was meant by this "we", except that it was clear that "we" is not "they", and "they" - "not one of our own." This was a clear manifestation of neo-romantic and neo-national identity politics, and the RO system, as well as the school as a whole, was assigned the role of a propaganda tool, "instilling" Danish culture as a Christian culture, and the task was to try to (re)socialize and (re)Christianize Christian students in this way (more precisely, insufficiently Christian, excessively secularized Christians), as well as integrate or rather even assimilate "others". You can talk about "other" religions in a way that leads to understanding, and therefore toleration.-

21. Ibid., p. 42 - 49.

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but there is no question of intimacy and familiarity, as in the case of teaching Christianity.

It is the year 1989 and the way Islam is positioned in the guidelines that can be considered a turning point towards the "securitization of religion", and therefore the "securitization of RELIGION". The first signs of the culture wars (the struggle against Islam) that played out in the public and political spheres in the 1990s and 2000s were already visible in the late 1980s.

In the subsequent period, up to 2004, the RO changed in many ways, but not in essence. In 1993, the goals set out in the Kristendomskundskab were declared the goal of school education in general: article 3 (1) of the Education Act of 1993 stated: "Folk schools [Folkeskolen] should introduce students to Danish culture and contribute to their understanding of other cultures." In the preparatory materials for the Act, Christianity is called a constitutive factor of Danish culture, while the concept of "other cultures "is referred to as" other, non-European cultures that influenced immigrants " (Undervisningsministeriet 1993).

The Education Act of 1993 is unequivocal: the Danish school is seen as a key instrument of identity politics, and the above-mentioned "goals" now apply not only to RO, but also to all subjects and to the school as a whole. These ideas reflected the dominant political and public discourse generated by a sense of threat to cultural identity, a threat that came from European integration, globalization, and most importantly, from Islam and the Muslim immigrant community.

In the new curriculum of Kristendomskundskab in 1995, the Christian theological-existentialist approach remains, but descriptive theology is replaced by the Christian philosophy of life (life-philosophy) and a certain universal "religious dimension". The goals were marked as follows:

Article 1. ... students realize and understand that the religious dimension is important for the worldview (livsopfattelsen) of each individual and for a person's relationships with other people. Teaching the subject takes Christianity in its historical and contemporary contexts as a starting point.

Article 2. Students should gain knowledge of the Bible's history and understand the importance of Christianity for fundamental values-

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of our culture (kulturkreds). In addition, students should gain knowledge about non-Christian religions and worldviews (livsanskue-lser) in order to understand a different way of life and other attitudes.

Article 3. Offering answers to various existential questions (livssporgsmal) in Christianity, other religions and worldviews (livsopfattelser), the course aims to provide students with a foundation for developing a personal and responsible attitude and behavior towards other people and nature (Undervisningsministeriet 1995).

Studies by religious scholars [22] and university lecturers [23] show that the "religious dimension" and the associated "philosophy of life", which, together with Christianity and biblical history, are the starting points for learning, are directly related to Lutheran-Protestant existential theology and theological philosophy of life. Thus, the specific direction of Christian theology became the dominant approach of RO.

In 2004, the curriculum has remained essentially the same, but it is undergoing some changes: for the first time, methodological guidelines (but not normative documents) allow teachers, at their discretion, to introduce concepts and symbols of other religions in primary school (Undervisningsministeriet 2005, 38). However, the guidelines do not make this mandatory - even in schools in urban areas where the presence of "others" (children of Muslim migrants) is very likely.

In 2005, a new version of the Education Act was introduced to strengthen the teaching of subjects related to the kulturbserende (National Cultural Heritage) and co.-

22. См. Jensen, Т. (1997) "Familiar and Unfamiliar Challenges to the Study and Teaching of Religions in an Increasingly Religious and Multireligious Context", in N.G. Holm (ed.) The Familiar and the Unfamiliar in the World Religions. Challenges for Religious Education Today, pp. 199 - 223. Abo: Abo Akademi University; Jensen, T. (2013) "A Battlefield in the Culture Wars: Religious Education in Danish Elementary School 1989 - 2011", in A. Jodicke (ed.) Religious Education Politics, the State, and Society, pp. 25 - 49. Wurzburg: ERGON.

23. Bowadt, P.R. (2007) Livets paedagogik: en kritik af livsfilosofien og dens paedagogisering. K0benhavn: Gyldendal; Bowadt, P.R. (2009) "The Courage to Be: The Impact of Lebensphilosophie on Danish RE", British Journal of Religious Education 31(1): 29 - 39.

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The Kristendomskundskab curriculum review mission, led by a priest of the State Evangelical Lutheran Church24, proposed raising the profile and emphasizing the importance of biblical narratives within the subject. The Education Act of 2014-2015 also differs little from the above-described 25. It is worth noting, however, that the right of teachers to study other non - Christian religions up to the 7th-9th grade is formulated more clearly here.

Concluding remarks

Religions of the world have been the subject of scientific study by historical comparative studies and religious studies for more than a century. It can be said that interest in religions other than "our" own remains a characteristic feature of the European approach to the study of religion (even if recently a little more attention has been paid to modern religions within Europe)26. Of course, it was theology that gave rise to history.-

24. This practice is not uncommon within the framework of RO in general education schools, even the rule rather than the exception. See: Jensen, T., Kjeldsen, K. "RE in Denmark - Political and Professional Discourses and Debates, Past and Present", p. 200, note 20.

25. See references to the following texts: Undervisningsministeriet, Faslles Mal, Kristendomskundskab. Faghaefte 3, 2009. http://www.uvm.dk/Service/Publikationer/Publikationer/Folkeskolen/2009/Faelles-Maal-2009 -Kristendomskundskab; Undervisningsministeriet. Bekendtgorelse om lov om Folkeskolen, 2014 [https://www. retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=l4563l, accessed on 20.11.2017].

26. On the study of religion in Europe, see three works by M. Стаусберга: Stausberg, M. (2007) "The Study of Religion(s) in Western Europe (I): Prehistory and History Until World War II", Religion 37: 294 - 318; Stausberg, M. (2008) "The Study of Religion(s) in Western Europe (II): Institutional Developments After World War II", Religion 38: 305 - 318; Stausberg, M. (2009) "The Study of Religion(s) in Western Europe III: Further Developments After World War II ", Religion 39: 261 - 282. Также см. Antes, P. (2004) "A Survey of New Approaches to the Study of Religion in Europe", in P. Antes, A.W. Geertz, R.W. Warne (eds) New Approaches to the Study of Religion, Vol. 1, pp. 43 - 61. Boston: Walter de Gruyter. On the growing interest in modern religion in Europe, see: Jensen, T. (2010) " The EASR within (the World Scenario of) the IAHR. Observations and Reflections", Historia Religionum 2: 82 - 83. Here I will refrain from speculating on why I find this trend unfortunate. See also the answer to this concern of mine in Stausberg, M. " The Study of Religion (s) in Western Europe III: Further Developments After World War II ", p. 277, and in the article on the development of Religion in Denmark in: Geertz, A. W., Jensen, T. (2014) " From the History of Religions to the Study of Religion in Denmark: an Essay on the Subject, Organizational History and Research Themes", Temenos 50 (1): 79-113. Special attention should be paid to the words of Ninian Smart about the ideal goals of studying religion: "Religious studies should help people make sense of history and other cultures that are different from the rest of the world.

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co-critical interest in early non-European Christianity and later in later non-European forms of Christianity. Nevertheless, the central task of theology has always been to serve the needs of religious institutions of the majority - to find ways to preserve the relevance of these institutions for modern man and society. Despite all attempts to bring theological research closer to the history of religions, the starting point for theology has generally been and remains the belief that this particular religion ultimately holds the keys to the gateway to true good life, both in this world and in the afterlife.

Looking at the situation in Europe in retrospect, I find ample reason to say that it is precisely what is often called "globalization" today that has allowed States, educational authorities in general, and the religious education system in particular to notice religions and denominations that are different from the majority religion. In contrast to academic religious studies, only a very few national RO models (for example, for the upper secondary classes in Denmark) realized the need to study these "foreign" religions - as long as they remained outside the borders of European countries; as long as they did not start to cross European borders en masse or with their own participation. native speakers - immigrants and refugees, or through electronic media. Other religions only entered RO's curricula, textbooks, and classrooms when they crossed borders and came to "us."

All this has opened the way for many European (national and supranational) recommendations to include "foreign" religions in the RO curriculum. That is why "we" decided to study the religion of our neighbors (and therefore the religions of "our" fellow students and their parents - in the classroom, school, district, society, state, and the world as a whole), and not only within the framework of purely religious interfaith programs and other programs.-

from our own. Consequently, it can play a vital role in breaking down the boundaries of European cultural tribal consciousness" (Smart, N. (1968) Secular Education & The Logic of Religion, p. 106. London: Faber and Faber).

27. This is not least due to its close ties with the Danish academic departments of religious history, because these faculties were largely responsible for the education and training of teachers for the upper secondary school in Copenhagen, beginning in 1912. E. Cf. Geertz, A. W., Jensen, T. "From the History of Religion". Religions to the Study of Religion in Denmark: an Essay on the Subject, Organizational History and Research Themes", p. 82.

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but also in more or less secular, as well as confessional RO courses.

Of course, much of this shift is due to the intrusion of new media into our lives, especially electronic news media and the Internet (and also, although to a lesser extent, to popular culture, such as cinema). Another powerful factor was that religion and especially Islam - especially radical, militant Islamism-became a central topic of public discussion.

A few years ago, my Swedish colleague Jenny Berglund began her research on PO in Northern European border towns with the hypothesis that the physical presence of the border, the physical presence of the "other", sometimes physically crossing it, would make it more likely to include this "neighbor" and its religion in the PO. However, by the end of the study, Berglund and her colleagues came to the opposite conclusion. Berglund writes:

Instead of bringing knowledge about the culture and religion of the "other" neighbor into the classroom, the border itself is brought into the classroom. In other words, there are signs that geographically (geographically) close proximity, on the contrary, makes teachers of religious education in their work even more strongly hold on to the "national"28.

In my own article in the same compendium, 29 I expressed surprise that my Swedish colleagues did not put forward this result as the first hypothesis from the very beginning. This is exactly what I would have done myself: it seemed to me a natural assumption, no matter how you looked at it - whether in the framework of identity theory, nation formation, or even an empirical analysis of the history of European countries (after all, they are all "borderlands" in the broad sense of the word).

Probably, it would be worth making a reservation about the need to distinguish between cities and other places where the spatial proximity

28. Berglund, J., Lunden, Th., Strandbrink, P. (eds.) (2015) Crossings and Crosses. Borders, Educations, and Religions in Northern Europe, p. 118. Boston: Walter de Gruyter.

29. Jensen T. (2015) "Religious Education (RE) in Other Kinds of Bordertowns: Denmark as an Extreme and Exemplary Case", in J. Berglund, Th. Lunden, P. Strandbrink (eds) Crossings and Crosses. Borders, Educations, and Religions in Northern Europe, pp. 213 - 238. Boston: Walter de Gruyter.

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this is a recent phenomenon, and those border areas where this meeting took place quite a long time ago. Where spatial proximity is still perceived as something new, otherness can be perceived as a challenge, a problem, or a threat precisely because it is recent. The threat to the local (social) order is accordingly seen as stronger and more immediate in places where the "other" has not yet become part of the (new) order.

Taking into account the situation in European countries, including Scandinavia, and the challenges of new religious diversity and pluralism, it is necessary to emphasize one important circumstance: the significant other is a Muslim, and the significant new religion is Islam. Securitization of religion and RO would be incomprehensible if Islam and Muslims were not seen as a threat to the social, political order and conventional understanding of religion.

One of the fundamental goals of national education is to instill the ideas and ideals of a given State in its future citizens. This means teaching a common language, a common history, and a common heritage, such as literary or artistic ones, or the teachings of a common (State) religion, as well as values based on it. Today, this also means the inclusion of other religions in the program, but this goal is secondary to the first one or is closely related to it. This is the case in Denmark, and certainly in Norway, and to some extent in Sweden. Similarly, education is organized in European countries, which continue to stubbornly cling to the confessional position.

Only Christianity is considered the basis of social order, the image of a good citizen, and a common system of moral values. A good citizen is one who is influenced by the majority religion, Christianity, and a good society is one that is based on Christian values or, at least, on the "Christian cultural heritage". Today, however, there seems to be some agreement that some knowledge of religions other than Christianity should be added to this foundation in order to ensure freedom of religion and meet the requirement of tolerance for minorities. Yet a good cosmopolitan must be deeply rooted in the national Christian identity.

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